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REPOET 



ON THE 



B P. 



TBIAL OF PLOWS, 



HELD AT UTICA, 



BY THE N. Y. STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, 



Commencing September 8th, 1867. 



WITH A SUPPLEMENT SHOWING THE RESULTS OP A SPECIAL TRIAL AT 

BRATTLEBORO, TO DETERMINE SEVERAL DISPUTED QUESTIONS 

RESPECTING THE ACTION OF THE PLOW. 



ALBANY : 

PRINTING HOUSE OP C. VAN BENTHUYSEN & SONS. 

1868. 




REPORT 



ON THE 



TEIAL OF PLOWS, 



HELD AT UTICA, 



BY THE ST. Y. STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, 



Commencing September Stli, 1867 > 



WITH A SUPPLEMENT SHOWING THE RESULTS OP A SPECIAL TRIAL AT 

BRATTLEBORO, TO DETERMINE SEVERAL DISPUTED QUESTIONS 

RESPECTING THE ACTION OP THE PLOW. 




ALBANY: 

PRINTING HOUSE OF VAN BENTHUYSEN & SONS. 

1868. 



REPORT 01 TRIALS OF PLOWS. 



INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 

In presenting their Report on the Trials of Plows, held at 
Utica, under the auspices of the New York State Agricultural 
Society, the Board of Judges will not be required to spend much 
time in insisting on the value of that implement, or in proving its 
influence upon the welfare of society at large. 

It is so generally acknowledged, that it has passed into a maxim, 
if not into an axiom, that the plow lies at the foundation of all 
wealth, and is the basis of all civilization. Like other truths of 
a similar character, which are received without hesitation and 
without inquiry, it is believed that the real value of the imple- 
ment is obscured by haze and mist in most minds, and that a few 
remarks upon this subject will not be wasted if they serve to give 
greater sharpness of delineation to this idea of its primacy anions 
agricultural implements. 

Its use dates back to a very remote antiquity. It is now gen- 
erally admitted by Biblical critics that the Book of Job is the 
most ancient writing contained within the canon of the Old Testa- 
ment. Yet this ancient work begins with an allusion to it: "And 
there came a messenger unto Job, and said, The oxen were 
ploughing and the asses feeding beside them; and the Sabeans 
fell upon them, and took them away; yea, they have slain the 
servants with the edge of the sword, and I only am escaped alone 
to tell thee." — Job i, 14, 15. In our History of the Plow we 
have given copies of sculptures on ancient monuments which date 
back four thousand years. 

It is certainly strange, in view of the importance and the anti- 
quity of the plow, that its construction should have received so 
little attention from scientific men, and the principles upon which 
it acts should have been so little observed by those who habiUi- 



4 Report on Trials of Plows. 

ally use it. The only special treatise upon it, known to us, is the 
work of Small, which was published late in the last century, and 
even that tells us very little of its history, or its theory, being 
mainly devoted to practical details. 

The census of the United States for the year 1860 gives the 
number of acres of improved laud in the United States, but unfor- 
tunate^ we are not told how many acres are in grass, or how 
many under tillage. 

We know, however, that in New York about two-thirds of the 
improved lands of the State is in grass, and that in the State of 
Ohio about one-third of the improved lands is in grass. The 
average ratio of the grass to the tillage land in these States is, 
therefore, as 1:1; or half of the whole of the improved lands are 
under tillage in these two States. If we may assume that this is 
the proportion throughout the Union, then, since there are 163,- 
110,720 acres of improved lands, one-half of the amount, namelj-, 
81,555,360 acres are under tillage, or say, in round numbers, 
80,000,000 acres. As Ohio and New York are the chief grass- 
raising states, it is probable that the average tillage in the other 
states is still greater than it is in them; but at all events, our esti- 
mate would not seem to be an exaggerated one. If now we 
assume that every plow turns over fifty acres annually, it will 
require one million five hundred thousand plows to accomplish 
the work; and if a plow lasts on an average eight years, it will 
take one hundred and eighty-seven thousand five hundred new 
plows every year to supply the demands of our country, without 
referring to the large number exported to foreign countries. 

There are 833,412 formers in the United States who own from 
three to fifty acres, and 1,121,602 who cultivate farms between 
fifty and one thousand acres each. Or, there are 1.955,012 inde- 
pendent cultivators of the soil. The above calculation would 
ajiree with a purchase of one new plow by each cultivator every 
tenth year. 

The number of establishments in the United States for tho 
manufacture of plows, harrows and cultivators, is lour hundred 
and twenty-three, and the total value of these products is $2,855,- 
248. If we suppose that one-third of this value is to be deducted 
for harrows and cultivators, it will leave $1,903,499 as the value 
of the plows manufactured annually; and if we assume that the 
average value of each plow is ten dollars, we shall have a result 
which varies very slightly from the estimate we have given. 



Introductory Chapter. 5 

Having, therefore, obtained a similar result by three different and 
independent processes, we may with some confidence assume, as 
the annual production, 187,500 plows for domestic use. 

We have endeavored to ascertain the annual value of the plows 
made in this country and exported to foreign countries, but, from 
the fact that all the agricultural implements exported are given 
in the official tables under one head, without any attempt to spe- 
cify the number and value of each machine, it is impossible to 
ascertain the number or value of the plows exported. The Ames 
Plow Company have for several years exported about one hun- 
dred thousand dollars worth annually, and other makers, in the 
opinion of the revenue officers, export two hundred thousand 
dollars worth more, which makes the whole value of the plows 
exported, three hundred thousand dollars. It is believed that 
the value of this export might easily be increased ten-fold. 

The plowing of the land under cultivation in the United States 
requires, according to our estimate, the labor of one million teams 
of either oxen, mules or horses for eighty days in the year; and 
Ave do not think the average value of the men and teams required 
For this purpose can be reckoned at less than two and an half 
dollars a day for each plow. This would make the aggregate 
cost of the plowing in each year to be $20,000,000. 

We have shown in a subsequent chapter, that there is a differ- 
ence of power required to perform the same amount of work by 
different plows, amounting to forty-six per cent, as shown by 
careful trials in England, and to forty-two per cent, according to 
the trials instituted by this Society in 1850. 

It follows from this, that if the plow having the least draught 
was brought into universal use, to the exclusion of those which 
require a greater power, it would reduce the cost of plowing in 
the United States forty-two per cent, or it would reduce it from 
$20,000,000 to $11,600,000, leaving $8,400,000 in the pockets of 
the farmers, as a fund to be applied to the payment of taxes or 
the improvement of their farms. 

If we suppose that the same number of men and teams were 
employed as heretofore, then they would be enabled to cultivate 
an area forty-two per cent greater with the same expenditure of 
power that they now employ; that is, they would cultivate an 
area of (113,600,000) one hundred and thirteen millions of acres, 
without any more expenditure of power than they now do (80,- 
000,000) eighty millions of acres. 



6 Report on Trials of Plows. 

The annual value of the crops produced on the present area of 
plowed land in the United States, may be roughly estimated at 
($900,000,000) nine hundred millions of dollars, or eleven and a 
quarter dollars per acre. 

If, by the use of better plows, we can increase this amount 
forty-two per cent, the aggregate increase would he ($378,000,- 
000) three hundred and seventy-eight millions of dollars. 

We do not mean to assert that this sum would represent the 
actual increase of the anuual value of the products of agriculture, 
but allowing each reader to make the deductions which he may 
think necessary for the increased cost of cultivating this increased 
area, such as seed, planting, after-culture and gathering, it will 
be seen that the use of the best form of the plow will increase 
the aggregate profits of agriculture to an extent equal to the 
annual national internal taxation of the United States. 

In view of the benefits which we have shown will result from 
the adoption of the best form of the plow, it is obvious that no 
amount of labor or expense which our agricultural societies can 
bestow upon it with a view to its improvement, will be misap- 
plied or wasted. 

We are not without hopes that our labors to this end at Utica 
will be thought by our agricultural brethren to have yielded 
some good fruits, and that this success will prove a sufficient 
stimulus not only to our own Society, but to other Stale Socie- 
ties in the United States, to continue this rigid system of obser- 
vation until all the laws of the plow shall have been discovered 
and accurately stated for the benefit of I he farmers of our country. 



History of the Plow. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE HISTORY OP THE PLOW IN EUROPE. 

It is impossible to say who was the first inventor of the plow. 
The earliest records speak of it as a well-known instrument of 
husbandry, and we are therefore left to conjecture respecting the 
origin of the mellowing of land to fit it for the reception of seeds 
and the growth of grain. 

The inhabitants of the earth must have observed, at a very 
early period of its history, that ground which had been accident- 
ally loosened bore a more abundant harvest; the rooting of hogs 
must have given them sufficient examples of this, if nothing else 
had suggested it to them. 

The next step, after they had become fairly conscious of this 
fact, would be to imitate it at such places and at such times as 
experience had shown them was most desirable. Probably a 
sharpened stick would be the most likely instrument to suggest 
itself to their minds; then they would widen the end of it, sharp- 
ening it to a chisel edge with a view of making more rapid work. 

Man in the hunter, and even in the pastoral state, is very averse 
to bodily labor. The little inventive power that he possesses 
will surely be directed to the making of contrivances which will 
release him from bodily toil. While working the land with his 
sharpened stick, with his mind intent upon some mode of amelio- 
rating his condition, he sees the bulls and cows grazing on ^\ ie 
hillsides around him; they are stronger than he, and he desires to 
subjugate their strength to his service. Seeing a forked stick in 
his path, a bright thought dawns upon his mind; he will tie the 
long end of a stick to the horns of a bull, while the short end will 
run into the ground and stir it much faster than he could do it with 
sharpened stick, and with much less labor to himself. He tries his 
the experiment, and cries, Eureka! or some barbarous equivalent 
for that Greek word. The germ of the plow is at length invented. 

The process by which the first man arrived at this result may 
be pure conjecture; but that the forked stick was the origin of 
the plow, we have the most ample evidence. 



s 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



Fig. 1 is copied from an ancient monument in Asia Minor, made 
wholly of the natural crooks of the branch of a tree, the only arti- 
ficial contrivances being the brace e, which strengthens the share 
c b, and the pins in the fore part of the beam a b, and connect it with 
the central division of the yoke p r. It was with a plow like this 
that the servants of Job were "plowing in the field when the 
Sabeans came upon them and drove them away." It was with 
such an one that Ulysses plowed among the sands of the shore at 
Ithaca, when he feigned madness before the messengers of Aga- 
memnon. 



■I 




Fiff. /• 

The most ancient monuments of Egypt, dating back at least 
three thousand years before the Christian era, reveal to us a 
slight modification of this implement, quite as rude in form, yet 
somewhat more powerful in execution. 




Mg. 2. 
Fig. 2 is a copy of these figures. It will be seen that the share 
being triangular in form, will take a broader furrow, while two 
handles in the plaoe of one give the plowman a greater command 
over the instrument. 



History of the Plow. 




The most ancient form of the Eoman plow use a in the days of 
the Tarquins, is given in Fig. 3. 

A more recent form of 
the implement, as used 
by Cincinnatus and Cato, 
is given in Figs. 4 and 5, 
which will be found to 
agree exactly with the 

description of the imple- Fig. 3. 

ment given by Virgil in the Georgics. The sole of the plow, 
A B, has two rectangular pieces of wood, G and H, fixed to it 
on each side, forming an acute angle with it, in which the teeth, 

E F (dentalia), are inserted. This 
exactly answers the description of 
Virgil: "Duplici aptantur dentalia 
dorso;" (the teeth are fitted to the 
double back.) E and F project 
obliquely upward, and perform the 
office of a mould-board. The share, 
B, was of metal. 

The next improvement in the plow 
was to cover the point with iron. 
A very ancient implement of British 
husbandry, called the Caschrom, is 
given in Fig. 6, which is used as a 
plow at this day in some parts of the 
outer Hebrides and in the Isle of 
Sky. Like the preceding examples 
of the implement from Asia Minor 
and Egypt, the wooden portion of 
it is in one single piece, and has 
evidently been selected on account 
of the natural crook which it had 
assumed in the tree, that permits 
the part a d to run nearly horizon- 
tally, while the upward curve of 
Fig, 4. Fig. 5. the handle, a c, rises to the shoulder 

of the plowman, and is allowed to rest upon it. When he 
desires to make it go deeper into the ground, he raises c on 
his shoulder; when it runs in too deeply, he presses with his foot 
upon the pin e. It is armed with an iron chisel at the point b, 




10 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



having a socket at the upper end, d, into which the fore end 
of the wooden part is firmly wedged. 

(A 




Flff. 6. 

Fig. 7 is the figure of an East Indian plow now in the Museum 
of our Society at Albany. Its form has not been altered for cen- 
turies, and in some portions of India it is the only plow in use. 

The Greeks, who always had a piece of history for every emer- 
gency, tell us that Ceres, or Demeter, as she was called by them, 
who was the daughter of Saturn and Rhea, and the mother of 
Proserpine by Jupiter, was the inventress and guardian of agri- 
culture. The story goes, that one day as Proserpine was gather- 
ing flowers in the fields of Enna in Sicily, Pluto came and carried 
her away, to be the queen of the lower regions. Ceres was dis- 
consolate for the loss of her daughter, and for a long period 
devoted herself to searching for her over the whole earth. While 
she thus devoted herself to this search, she neglected the earth, 
which thus become barren. Jupiter, and all the gods in succes- 
sion, besought her to abandon the search and return to Olympus, 
but she refused, and would not be consoled. At length the gods 
persuaded Pluto to allow Proserpine to revisit the upper world, 
remaining with her mother two-thirds of the year, while she was 
still to return to him for one-third of it. Ceres was appeased by 
this arrangement, and consented to return to Olympus; but ere 
she went, she taught to Triptolemus of Eleusis the art of agricul- 
ture, giving him at the same time her chariot drawn by two 
dragons, in which, by her command, he traveled over the whole 
earth, distributing corn to all the inhabitants. Triptolemus, 
under her inspiration, was the inventor of the plow. 

The Greeks had two festivals in honor of Ceres, "which were 
called Thesmophoria and Eleusinia. The Romans, who were 
greatly devoted to agriculture, were ardent worshippers of Ceres, 



History of the Plow. 



II 







12 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



having many temples devoted to her service, and one annual fes- 
tival called the Ceralia. This festival was celebrated by matrons 
holding burning torches in their hands, and whoever ventured to 
appear without previous initiation was punished with death. 

This divine origin of agriculture was devoutly believed by the 
Greeks and Romans, as well as the Egyptians; but like all other 
false beliefs, it worked great practical injury. It was reckoned 
impious to change the processes which had been expressly 
revealed from heaven, lest they should appear to derogate from 
the wisdom of Ceres, and thus incur her displeasure; which, of 
course, was an absolute barrier to all improvement. In fact it 
would seem that the shadow of that delusion has reached down 
to the present day, since, in no art known to man, is it so difficult 
to give currency to new processes as it is in agriculture. A very 
large portion of the farmers still use implements as rude as those 
we have already figured. In fact the Caschrom is still in use in 
some parts of the Hebrides. 




Fig. 8. 

In Fig. 8 we give the plow used throughout Eg} T pt at the present 
day, which is but a very slight improvement on the ancient imple- 
ment represented in Fig. 2. Fig. 9 is an accurate representation 
of a plow now in our museum at Albany, such as is almost 
universally used in Mexico. Even in Fiance, Spain and Italy the 
plows used are of the most awkward kind, incapable of doing 
good work, and excessively wasteful of power. 

The next step in improvement seems to have been the substi- 
tution of a more decided wedge form in the plow for the trian- 
gular sticks of an earlier age. In some eases the leading idea of 
the plowmaker seems to have been to have the wedge act hori- 
zontally, lifting up the earth: in others (he edge was formed to 
act laterally, pushing the slice cut oil' by the point over to the 
other side, so as to leave a free space tor the next furrow. 



History of the Plow. * 



13 



Fig. 10, Chinese plow in the museum of the New York State 
Agricultural Society. 

Fig. 11 represents a plow figured from the Harleian manuscript 
No. 4,374, such as was used in England in the reign of Edward 




Jig. 9. 
the Fourth, A. D. 1470. It is formed from a rhomboidal piece 
of wood, bent or grooved downward from the middle towards 
the front and rear, with the edges turned upward, the acute ends 
being turned towards the front and rear, the front being shod 




Ftff. iO. 
with iron. In this way the earth is scooped up from the solid 
earth, pushed backward and upward to the middle line of the 
share, when it falls backward in a pulverized state into the furrow 
from whence it was taken. 



14 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



Fig. 12 is taken from an old Saxon calendar, preserved in the 
Cotton manuscripts of the eleventh century, and used in the time 
of William the Conqueror. It was drawn by four oxen, and fast- 
ened to them by ropes made of twisted willows, and sometimes 




Fig. //. 

by the skins of whales. It consists of a simple wooden wedge 
covered with straps of iron, one side being placed parallel to 
the line of the plow's direction, the other sweeping over to 
the left hand, clearing it from its own path, and leaving an unob- 
structed furrow for the next slice. A coulter, not unlike those 
now in use, is inserted in the beam, and a wheel is placed in front 
to regulate the depth. 

We have met with nothing previous to this plate which shows 
a real coulter, or that which we now call by that name. Virgil's 
plow had none, nor were any of the Italian plows provided with 
one in Tull's day. 

tt will be seen from the two last illustrations that the idea of 
a wedge form for a plow had begun io dawn upon men's minds/ 
some using the wedge acting vertically, others laterally; but they 




/'>>/. fJS. 



existed in the minds of plowmakers in too vague and misty a form 
to be of much practical benefit. No one had as yel grasped the 
idea <>f combining the two wedges in the same implement, nor 
had they smv idea of (In' curves by which this could be effected. 



HlSTOBY OF THE PLOW. 

,l!l 'Ili!i««ia I 



15 



^ 

<**-. 

V 




16 Report on Trials of Plows. 

There is a plow now in the niuseuni of the Society at Albany, 
from Canada, derived from France, which has been in use there 
unchanged for centuries, although no one knows how many, which 
seems to be the first feeble attempt to realize this idea. We give 
a drawing of it in Fig. 13. 

It will be seen that this is the twisted wedge raising up the 
earth first and then twisting it to the right. It is furnished with 
two wheels to keep it steady in the furrow, and a coulter of the 
modern form. It is a rude affair when compared with our modern 
implements, but it shows real genius in its author. 

The beginning of the last century was signalized by a revival 
of interest in agriculture in England, and attention was more 
strongly turned to the improvement of the plow than ever before. 
A plow introduced from Holland, and known as the Rotherhani 
plow (many persons suppose this name to be a corruption of Rot- 
terdam), was first constructed by Joseph Foljambe of Yorkshire, 
which he soon after sold to Mr. Staniforth, who did not manufac- 
ture them himself, but charged a royalty of two shillings and six- 
pence on the manufacture by others; but when he attempted to 
raise the price to seven shillings and sixpence, the validity of his 
patent was contested aud set aside by the courts on the ground 
that it was not a new invention. 

This plow became very popular among the more enterprising 
farmers; but notwithstanding its work was much better, and its 
draft was much lighter, it came very slowly into use among the 
masses. 

Fig. 14, land side of Rotherhani plow 7 . Fig. 15, furrow side of 
Rotherhani plow r . 

DIMENSIONS OF THE ROTHERHAM PLOW— Fig. 15. 

Feet. In. 

From the end of stilt, E, to the point of the share, T 7 4* 

From the end of beam, A, to point of share, 1 3 0* 

Length of the beam, A, B , . 6 

Width of the head in the widest part, T ] 4 

Width of the head at J ... 9 

Width of share at D 3i 

Length of surface <>n which the plow touches the ground, J, ] 2 101 

Heighl from ground where the coulter goes through 1 8 

Width between stilts at extreme end 2 (i 

Heighl of stilts iVniii ground 2 10 

\\ eighl ol \\ 1 and iron \\ ork li eu t. 

• These measures are taken by dropping a perpendicular to the piano of the sole, and 
then measuring horizontally. 



History of the Plow. 



17 



This plow was made of wood, covered in the working parts 
with sheet iron, which needed frequent renewal. It is the first, 
so far as we know, which provided a bridle, e, Fig. 16, by which 
the plow could be turned to or from land. The point is conical, 




Fig. /£. 
which enters the land on the principle of burrowing or mining, 
rather than by the clean chisel cut now adopted, which must have 
considerably increased the power required to operate it; still, a 
comparison of it with its predecessors shows that it must have 




Fig. 75. 

done much better work, and with less expenditure of power. It 
will also be seen, on examination of the mould board, that the 
maker had empirically approximated to the true theory, as the 
two wedges, lateral and vertical, are connected by a curve line, 
so that the furrow slice is first raised a little and is then gradu- 
ally turned over to one side. 

Ten years after the letters patent 
were granted to Foljatnbe for the 
Rotherham plow, Jethro Tull pub- 
lished a work on " Horse-hoeing 
Husbandly," the first edition of 
which was published in 1730. In this work, although Tull was 
a thorough radical in the cause of agricultural improvement, he 
gives the preference to the old Berkshire plow, which will be 
seen, on comparison with the Rotherham plow, to be far inferior 
2 




Fig. 76. 



18 Report on Trials of Plows. 

to it in ease of management, in ability to do good work, and in 
lightness of draft. 

We give this plow and its subordinate parts on Plate I, as illus- 
trating the history of plows, and as a curious example of the 
slowness with which real improvements were adopted in agricul- 
tural communities. We may add, that Tull published another 
edition of his work in 1762, thirty-two years after the introduc- 
tion of the Rotherham plow, in which he still adheres to his pre- 
ference for the old Berkshire. 

Tull was strongly in favor of four coultered plows, such as is 
shown in Plate I, fig. 2. His eighteenth chapter is devoted to a 
dialogue between a farmer and himself, in which he gives his 
reasons for his preference of that form of plow. His chief reasons 
are briefly these: It divides the land more completely, affording 
o;reater access to air and moisture. The furrow bein^ cut into 
four parts, it will have four times the superfices that it would have 
without the coulter cuts; but this is not all. "It is more divided 
crossways, viz : The ground wrest presses and breaks the lower 
(or right hand) quarter; the other three quarters, in rising ami 
coming over the earth board, must make a crooked line about a 
fourth longer than the straight one they made before moved; 
therefore, their thinness not being able to hold them together, 
they are broken into many more pieces for want of tenacity to 
extend to a longer line, contrary to a whole furrow, whose great 
breadth enables it to stretch and extend from a shorter to a longer 
line without breaking; and, as it is turned off, the parts are drawn 
together again by the spring of the turf, and so remain whole 
after plowing." 

The objects which Mr. Tull sought to accomplish were very 
desirable, but the four coultered plow was never very generally 
adopted; and as the same objects have been since accomplished 
in a far more simple and philosophical manner, it has fallen into 
utter oblivion. 

Fig. 1 represents the old Berkshire plow, pure and simple. 
The plow head consists of a pair of wheels, A B, and their axis. 
Two crow staves, D D, through which two rows of holes are per- 
forated, by means of which the pillow, E, upon which the beam 
rests, is elevated or depressed. II, the tow chain which fastens 
the plow to the head. L, the bridle chain, one end whereof is 
fastened to the beam by a pin, and the Other end to the top of 
the stake, which is held up to the left crow stall' by the ring M. 



Plate I. 




Plate II 



u 


> 






o 8 


*■ 




! 




H I 


5!i 





;•_. 




_ -BSJs/z 



t> 

CQ 

o 
W 

t-H 
l> 

O 

K 
l> 

It 1 
f 

tr 1 
o 

3 




History of the Plow. 19 

The plow tail consists of the beam, N, the coulter, O, the share, 
P, and the sheat. Q; the hinder sheat, R, passing through the 
beam near its end. T, the drock which belongs to the right side 
of the plow tail, and whereto the ground wrest, V, is fastened, as 
is the earth board, whose fore part, W, is seen before the sheat. 
Z is the double retch which holds up the sheat. 

We have retained the antiquated nomenclature of Tull in this 
description, as these words are still retained in some English 
works, and would not be understood by American readers without 
a plate with references were before them. 

Fig. 2 represents the four coultered plow recommended by 
jl\i11. The beam differs in length from the former one, being ten 
feet four inches long, or two feet four inches longer than the 
other. It differs also in shape, being only straight from a to b, 
from thence curving suddenly upward, as shown in the figure. 
The perpendicular height at a is eleven inches, at b one foot eight 
inches,, while the height of the beam where it rests upon the 
pillow is two feet ten inches above the plane of the sole. 

From the end a to the back part of the first coulter is three 
feet two inches; from thence to the back of the next coulter is 
thirteen inches; from thence to the fourth is the same. From a 
to >6 is seven feet. 

The beam is made of ash or oak, and is five inches deep and 
four inches broad at the first coulter. 

Fig. 4 is the sheat, seven inches broad, with the iron retch upon 
it, the left leg of which must stand foremost. The ends pass 
through the beam, and are secured on the top by nuts; the sheat 
is also mortised into the beam and secured by a pin passing 
through the hole a. The angle bed must always be less than 
45 deg. ; from 42 deg. to 43 cleg, works best in practice. 

Fig. 5 is the share, a, the end of the point; b is the tail of the 
share; length from a to b is three feet nine inches; c is the fin; 
d the socket into which the bottom of the sheat enters; e a thin 
plate of iron to which the hinder sheat is riveted. From a to f 
is the point, three and a half inches long, flat beneath and round 
above. From / to c is the edge of the fin, which should be of 
steel. 

Fig. 6 shows the share with its right side upward as when 
plowing; the side a b should be perfectly straight, but its under 
side, c, should be a little hollow. 



20 Report on Trials of Plows. 

Fig. 7 is the share turned bottom upward, showing concavity a 
of the fin, which must be greatest in a stony, rubbly soil. 

Fig. 8 shows the share right side upward, but leaning towards 
the left. 

Fig. 3 shows the upper and right side of a four coultered plow, 
of which V, the iron ground wrest, is shown in Fig. 9; it is two 
feet five inches long, four inches deep at the end b, and three- 
eighths inch thick, except at the end a, where it is thin enough 
to bend so as to set close to the share, as at e, fig. 6. The ground 
wrest has four small holes near its end, a, into one of which a nail 
is inserted, which fastens it to the sheat through the Ions: hole in 
the side of the socket of the share, as at a, fig. 10, when it will 
stand in the position ef in fig. 6. From the outside of the ground 
wrest at f, to the outside of the share at 5, is eleven and a half 
inches. The ground wrest has several holes at the upper side of 
its broadest end, as at b, in fig. 9, by which it is nailed to the 
lower part of the drock T, as in fig. 3, which drock, with its per- 
forations, is shown in fig. 11 

Fig. 12 is the earth board (mould board), with its inside up- 
wards; the notch a b shows the rising of the wood which takes 
hold of the sheat, to which it is fastened by the holes c and d, 
and at the other end it is fastened to the drock by the hole e; ail 
which is seen at W, in fig. 3. The pin with which it is fastened 
to the drock is larger in the middle than at either end, which 
prevents the earth board from coming near the drock; by this pin 
the distance between them is regulated, so that the rear end of 
the earth board may be thrown inward or outward, according to 
the requirements of the soil. 

Fig. 13 is the long handle, five feet four inches long, and four 
inches in the widest part; it is pinned to the sheat through the 
holes a b, and to the drock through the hole c. 

The short handle, S, is fig. 14; is three feet nine inches long, 
and is pinned to the hinder sheat, fig. 15, by the hole a, and to 
tlif top of the fore sheat above the beam by the hole />. 

Fig. 16 is the piece for the mortises in which the coulters arc 
inserted; the lateral distance between them is two and a half 
inches. The fore part of every mortise should incline a little to 
the left, so that the backs of the coulters may not bear against 
the Lett side of the incisions made by their edges. In setting the 
coulters, each should stand nearer to the perpendicular than the 



History of the Plow. 21 

one behind; or, in other words, the forward coulter should have 
the least rake, and the rear coulter the most. 

Fig. 17 is a coulter, a b; its length is two feet eight inches, e 
d; its edge is sixteen inches long, d c; the length of its handle is 
sixteen inches, one and seven-eighths inches broad, and seven- 
eighths inch thick. 

Fig. 18 is a nut with its two opposite corners turned up so as 
to be driven by a hammer. 

Fig. 19 is an iron collar (bridle) by which the tow chain is 
fastened to the beam, as seen at a, fig. 3. The notches are in- 
tended to facilitate the direction of the share to or from land. 
The length ot each side of this collar is one foot. 

The tow chain is shown in fig. 3, where the link Y is secured 
by the stake, as shown in fig. 1. 

Fig. 20 is the iron wilds. The distance between the two legs 
is eight and a half inches; their length is nineteen inches. Its 
position is seen in figs. 1 and 2; the notches are intended to give 
a broader or narrower furrow. E is the ring by which the two 
links and the two crooks, F and G, are held together, and on 
which they all move. 

The diameter of the left wheel in fig. 2 is twenty inches; of the 
right, two feet three inches; their distance asunder is two feet 
five and a half inches. 

The crow staves are one foot eleven inches high from the box 
to the gallows, and their distance apart is ten inches. The height 
from the plane of the sole to the hole in the box where the tow 
chain passes through it, is thirteen inches, which is two inches 
below the holes of the wilds on the rear face of the box. The 
height at the other end, where the crook of the collar takes hold 
of the pin of the beam at c, fig. 2, is twenty inches high. 

No other noticeable changes were made in the plow until 
near the beginning of the present century, when the conviction 
that there was a real law of nature which ought to regulate the 
shape of the plow, began in a vague and misty way to take pos- 
session of men's minds. They felt instinctively that the imple- 
ment was too complicated and cumbrous, and that it was quite 
possible to simplify it and to diminish its draft. 

One of the earliest laborers in this field was Thomas Jefferson, 
late President of the United States, who, in a communication to 
the French Institute, attempted to solve the mathematical problem 



22 Report on Trials of Plows. 

of the true surface of the mould-board, and to lay down intelli- 
gible and practical rules for its formation, for the first time. 

He saw very clearty, and we believe he was the first to discern 
it with distinctness, that the plow should consist of two wedges, 
one acting vertically and the other laterally, which should be so 
Mended in a curve surface that the furrow should rise and turn 
over smoothly and continuously. 

It is impossible to over-estimate the value of this contribution 
to agricultural science. All the old writers complain that when 
the makers of good plows died, their art died with them. Their 
plans being purely empirical, they could not communicate the true 
mode of making them to others, and hence the art was lost as fast as 
it was found. Indeed, the same maker was often unable to realize 
his own ideals in practice, making at one time a plow that gave 
perfect satisfaction, and the next time one that was very inferior. 
Thus, Arthur Young tells us in his agricultural report of Suffolk, 
that "a very ingenious blacksmith of the name of Brand" made 
a plow of iron, of which he says "there is no other in the king- 
dom equal to it;" and yet when he died no one else could make 
them. A drawing of this plow is given in Fig. 17. 




JFig. 77. 

It was usual for the farmer to purchase the wooden part of his 
plow of a mechanic called the plow-wright, which he afterwards 
had ironed by a blacksmith. Neither of these men paid any 
regard to the views of the other; the plow-wright made his part 
according 1<> the counsel of his own will, while the blacksmith 
adhered to his own notions without the slightest reference to the 
plans of the plow-wright. The result was an implement, as a 



History of the Plow. 23 

whole, which had no unity of plan, and the discordant parts could 
not, therefore, be expected to accomplish satisfactory results. 

In view of these great difficulties in the way of making uni- 
formly good plows, it must be admitted that the discovery of Mr. 
Jefferson, by which mould-boards could be made by any one with 
the absolute certainty of having them all exactly alike, was an 
era in agriculture, and the root of all real progress in the manu- 
facture of this all-important implement. 

We have therefore thought that it would be desirable to give 
a full description of his method, which we hope will prove intel- 
ligible to every one who desires to understand it. 

In order to obtain a clear idea of the curve of the mould-board 
which Mr. Jefferson considered to be the best, we give his ideas 
in his own words, except that we shall take the liberty of chang- 
ing the antiquated names given by him, for those which are used 
to designate those parts at the present day: 

" The mould-board of the plow ought not only to be the con- 
tinuation of the shield of the share beginning at its posterior 
edge, but it must also be in the same plane. Its first function is 
to receive horizontally from the sock the earth, to raise it to the 
height proper for being turned over; to present, in its passage, the 
least possibleresistance, and consequently to require the minimum of 
moving power. Were its function confined to this, the wedge would 
present, no doubt, the properest form for practice; but the object 
is also to turn over the sod of earth. One of the edges of the 
mould-board ought then to have no elevation, to avoid an useless 
wasting of force; the other edge ought, on the contrary, to go on 
ascending until it has passed the perpendicular, in order that the 
sod may be inverted by its own weight; and the inclination of 
the mould-board must increase gradually from the moment that 
it has received the sod. 

" In this second function the mould-board then acts like a wedge 
situated in an oblique direction, or ascending, the point of which 
recedes horizontally on the earth, while the other end continues 
to rise till it passes the perpendicular. Or, to consider it under 
another point of view, let us place on the ground a wedge, the 
breadth of which is equal to that of the share of the plow, and 
which in length is equal to the share from the wing to the poste- 
rior extremity, and the height of the heel is equal to the height 
of the rear of the share above the sole: draw a diagonal on the 
upper surface from the left angle of the point to the angle on the 



24 Report olsf Trials of Plows. 

right of the upper part of the heel; slope the face by making it 
bevel from the diagonal to the right edge which touches the 
earth: this half will evidently be the properest form for discharg- 
ing the required functions, namely, to remove and turn over grad- 
ually the sod, and with the least force possible. If the left of 
the diagonal be sloped in the same manner, that is to say, if we 
suppose a straight line, the length of which is equal at least to 
that of the wedge, applied on the face already sloped, and moving 
backwards parallel to itself and to the two ends of the wedge, 
at the same time that its lower end keeps itself always along the 
lower end of the right face, the result will be a curved surface, 
the essential character of which is, that it will be a combination 
of the principle of the wedge, considered according to two direc- 
tions, which cross each other, and will give what we require, a 
mould-board presenting the least possible resistance. This mould- 
board, besides, is attended with the valuable advantage that it 
can be made by any common workman by a process so exact that 
its form will not vary the thickness of an hair. One of the great 
faults of this essential part of the plow is the want of precision, 
because workmen having no other guide than the eye, scarcely 
two of them are similar. One may easily conceive and render 
sensible the manner in which the sod is raised on the moukl- 
board which we have described, by an attentive consideration of 
the following diagram, Fig. 18. 



-Fig. /8. 

Draw on an horizontal plane or parallelogram, abefe the 
lines a b and c <\ bring each = to twenty-four inches, — the length 
of the mould-board, and the lines /; c, <l c each = nine inches, = 
the width of the sole at the heel of the plow, produce the line ae 
to d, and make e d lour and a half inches, this being the overhang 



History of the Plow. 25 

of the rear end of the mould-board beyond the perpendicular 
which Mr. Jefferson thought the most convenient length in prac- 
tice. 

At the point d erect a straight stick twelve inches long, which 
is twice the depth of the proposed furrow; then from the point 
b stretch a string tightly to the top of the stick at d. When this 
is done, take a straight edge twelve inches loug, and placing it on b c, 
where it will rest horizontally and will coincide with the plane 
of the parallelogram, move it backwards towards the line a d, 
keeping the point of the edge which was at first coincident with 
the point c along the line c e, and always preserving the paral- 
lelism of the edge with the vertical plane of b c, it is evident that 
as the edge resting on the diagonal b d moves backwards, the end 
which at first coincided with b will rise upward, and every suc- 
cessive removal towards the line a d it will assume a larger angle 
with the horizontal plane. When the end which was at c arrives 
at the point gr, and the corresponding part of the edge is on the 
string at h, the line g h will form an angle of forty-five degrees 
with the horizontal plane. When the end of the stick stands on 
the point /, and the edge coincides with/ on the string, the stick 
will be exactly perpendicular to the plane: passing on in the line 
/ e, towards a d, the angles will assume an opposite direction, so 
that when the end of the moving stick rests upon e, and the edge 
rests on the string at d, it will make an angle with the plane of 
llO^ degrees. When the path of the straight edge from b c to 
e d is attentively considered, it is evident that it will have des- 
cribed a curved surface, which is the ideal of what we seek to 
reproduce in wood. 

Let us assume that the depth of the furrow is six inches, its 
width nine inches, and the length of the mould-board two feet, 
these figures will decide the size of the block from which the 
mould-board must be cut. 

The transverse section of the block, Fig. 
— 5y 19, will then be nine inches at the base b c, 
I thirteen and a half inches at its summit a d, 
/ and twelve inches at the side a b. The line 
/ be must be nine inches, because hat is the 
width of the furrow. The line a b is placed 
at twelve inches, because Mr. Jefferson found 
that unless the height of the mould-board 
was twice as great as the furrow (which we 



26 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



ra 



n 



have assumed to be six inches), the earth, when the soil was 
friable and sandy, would rise up over the edge of the mould- 
board like waves, and fill the furrow behind the plow. It will 
be seen, however, since in the progress of discovery we have 
obtained a much better form of mould-board, there is no necessity 
for this great excess of height. The line a d is taken at thirteen 
and a half inches, because in his opinion it was essential for the 
rear end of the mould-board to project four and a half inches 

beyond the perpendicular, in order to 
make the sod fall on to the preceding 
slice by its own gravity. It is possible 
that this amount of inclination from the 
perpendicular would be sufficient to 
effect the object on level land, but it 
requires a much greater lateral projec 
tion to make the sod fall properly 
when the furrow is turned up hill. Mr. 
Jefferson's line of inclination is twenty 
and one-half degrees; modern practice, 
founded on the necessity of the case, 
d gives an inclination not less than forty - 



& 



five degrees. 




Fiff 



A block having a transverse section, 
as in Fig. 19, and three feet long, is 
taken and smoothly planed on all its 
sides. This block is represented in 
Fig. 20. The first operation consists 
in forming the tail, by which the mould- 
board is affixed to the stilt or handle, 
by sawing across from a to b, on its 
left side, and at the distance of twelve 
inches from the end, f g ; continue the cut perpendicularly along 
a e, until the edge of the saw comes to a line one and a half 
inches above the side n i; then taking k i, j h, each equal to one 
and a half inches, and saw across the line j k, along the line /• r, 
parallel to the right side. The piece b a e k j f r/ \x\\\ fall of 
itself and leave the tail, k e d i h j. an inch and a half in thick- 
ness. It is of the anterior part, b a e d / m n, that the mould- 
board must be formed. 

V>y means of a square, trace out on all the faces of the block, 
lines at an inch distance from each other, of which there avj'11 



History of the Plow. 



27 



necessarily be twenty-three; then draw the diagonals, m d, Fig. 21, 
on the upper face, and d o on that which is situ- 
ated on the right; make the saw enter at the 
jO point m, directing it towards d, and making it 
descend along the line m I, until it marks out 
a straight line between d and Z, Fig. 22. Then 
make the saw enter at the point o, and preserving 
the direction o d, make it descend along the line 
o I, until it meets with the central diagonal, d I, 
which had been formed by the first cut; the pyra- 
mid, m n o I d, Fig. 23, will drop out by itself 
and leave the block in the form represented by 




Fig. 22. 



Fig. 27. 



It is here to be observed, that in the last ope- 
ration, instead of stopping the saw at the central 




diagonal, d I, if we had continued to notch the 
block, keeping on the same plane, the wedge 
I m n o d a, Fig. 21, would have been taken 
away, and there would have remained another 
wedge, I o d a b c, which, as was observed be- 
fore, in speaking of the principle in regard to 
the construction of the mould-board, would exhi- 
bit the most perfect form, were the only object 
to raise the sod; but as it must also be turned ®" 
over, the left half of the upper wedge has been 
preserved, in order to continue on the same side 
the bevel to be formed on the right half of the 
lower wedge. 

Let us now proceed to lay down the means of 

producing this bevel; in order to obtain which we 
had the precaution to trace out lines around the 
U block before we removed the pyramid, Fig. 23. 
Care must be taken not to confound these lines, 
now that they are separated by the vacuity left 
by the removal of that pyramid, Fig. 22. 

Bearing in mind that the line a d is thirteen 
and a half inches in length, the line a b is twelve 
inches, the line b c or I o is nine inches in length 
and that the line d c slopes downward and inward 
towards the left hand, as shown in Fig. 19. We make the saw 
enter in the two points of the first dotted line situated nearest to 



Fig. 22. 



Ill 




Fig. 23. 



28 Report on Trials of Plows. 

m and o, Fig. 22, and on the diagonals m d and o d, continuing 
the stroke on that first line till it reach on the one hand the cen- 
tral diagonal d I, and on the other the lower right edge, o h, of 
the block, Fig. 22; the posterior end of the saw will come out at 
some point situated on the upper trace in a straight line with the 
corresponding points of the edge and the central diagonal. Con- 
tinue to do the same thing on all the points formed by the inter- 
section of the exterior diagonals and lines traced out around the 
block, taking always the central diagonal and the edge o h, as the 
term and the traces as directors; the result will be, that when 
you have formed several cuts with the saw, the end of that instru- 
ment, which came out before at the upper face of the block, will 
come out at the face situated on the left of the latter; and all 
these different cuts of the saw will have marked out as many 
straight lines, which, extending from the lower edge, o h, of the 
block, will proceed to cut the central diagonal. Now, by the 
help of any proper tool, remove the sawn parts, taking care to 
leave visible the traces of the saw, and this face of the mould- 
board will be finished. 

An attentive consideration of the processes which have been 
gone through with the block, Fig. 22, will show that they are 
precisely equivalent to those described iu elucidating Fig.18; the 
diagonal, d ?, in the first, corresponds with the diagonal b d in 
the second, and the line o h in the one corresponds with the line 
c e in the other. 

It must not be forgotten that the point d overhangs the point 
c four and a half inches towards the right; hence there will be a 
point in the line o h, at f, which will be exactly vertical on the 
diagonal d I, it is obvious that in sawing the traces bewteen/and 
o, the point of the saw will be directed upward and forward 
towards the line a m. At / it will be directed vertically upward, 
and after it passes the point/, towards c, it will be directed 
lownwards and backwards towards the line J> I; the saw marks 
which are left on the face of the mould-board arc the representa- 
tives of the successive positions of the twelve-inch stick as it was 
progressively moved backward in a line parallel to itself from c 
towards e, in Fig. 18. 

It now remains to construct the opposite side of the mould- 
board so as to be parallel at all points with the face. Invert the 
block, and make the saw enter at the points where the line h /, 
Fig. 24, meets with the traces, ami remembering that the side, 



History of the Plow. 



29 



1TL 




jit 



a b m /, which in Fig. 22 laid vertically and 
to the left of the block, now lies down- 
wards on its face, while the side of the 
wedge a dm {ad being thirteen and a half 
inches) now lies vertically and is on the 
leftside of the block; now continue the 
stroke along these traces until both ends 
of the saw approach within an inch, or any 
other convenient distance of the finished 
face of the mould- board. When each of 
the traces have been thus sawn through, 
remove the sawn parts with some conven- 
ient tool, as before, and the mould-board 
is finished. 

Any one who will have the patience to 
fix in his mind carefully the line left by 



Fig. 2£ 
the saw when its posterior end rests in the line o h, and its ante- 
rior end on the diagonal d I, through each of the twenty-three 
traces made upon the block, will be enabled to conceive of the 
exact twist of the surface of the mould-board; yet as some minds 
have a difficulty in realizing such warped surfaces, we give 
another method which may be more clear to such readers. 




Fig. 25. 

Suppose the saw cuts the lines m d and o d, Fig. 24, in the 
points x and t, in the traces x z and t s, parallel to a b b o, and 
the prolongations of which on the triangles m d I and I d o are 
the lines x w and t w; the saw must then penetrate the block, 
remaining in the same plane in question, until its point has reached 
the point s, and at the same time touch the point w of the central 
diagonal d I. The fore end of the saw will come out at some 
point, y, of the face a m d, so that three points, s w y, will be in 
the same straight line. But if this operation be repeated in dif- 
ferent places of the lines, m d and o d, bringing the edge down 



30 Report on Trials of Plows. 

along the traces to the line o h, at the rear, and the line d ?, in 
front, the fore part of the saw will come out on the face, a m d, 
as we go on towards c, at constantly varying elevations above the 
line a m. If we now connect the points thus made by the saw on 
the face, a m d, the line traced between them will be the line 
n y d, Figs. 24 and 25. Beyond this height the saw, directed in 
the same manner, will come out at other points situated on the 
posterior face, a b m I, and a line connecting these points, as 
before, will form the second of these curves on both figs., n, 1, 
which will meet the first in the point n. 

These two curves being traced out, let us suppose straight lines 
drawn to the places where the saw stopped each time that it 
touched the diagonal, d I, and of which one, as already said, passes 
through the points s w y; and let us conceive a surface touching 
all these straight lines, and whose limits, on the one hand, shall 
be the curves d y n, I n, and on the other the line o //, this sur- 
face, which must be uncovered by sections made with a proper 
instrument, will form one of the faces of the mould-board, which 
is represented by d n I o c, Fig. 25, where c y represents the per- 
pendicular and the point d curves over towards the spectator four 
and a half inches beyond the point c. The share, I o x, has been 
added to show how the plow looks when finished. 

To make the opposite face of the mould-board, the thickness 
thereof having been determined by the thickness of d e k i, Fig. 
24, at one and a half inches, let us first conceive that there has 
been traced out, proceeding from the point e, the curve cu p, 
parallel to d y n, and then proceeding from the point jj, the curve 
p q, parallel to n I. 

Let us next suppose that the saw cuts the edge b I of the face 
b am I in the point x', situated in the same plane as z x, t s, which 
plane has been taken, for example, in regard to the anterior face 
of the mould-board. The saw must be directed along the traces 
x' z and x' s, in such a manner that its motion shall stop at the 
term where its edge, on the one hand, shall touch the curve ep, 
in the point a, situated on the trace a; z, and, on the other, shall 
be situated parallel to the line s w y, at which the saw stopped 
on the other side of the mould-board. The edge of the saw will 
then cut the face of b I o c, in some point t\ so situated that the 
straight line drawn through that point and the point u, shall be 
parallel to the straight line which passes through the point swy. 
If you continue cutting in the same manner, with the saw, differ- 



History of the Plow. 31 

ent points of the edge b I, those by which it comes out will form, 
on the face b I o c, a curve j s q; and if, through these points and 
those corresponding to them in the lines e p and p q, there will 
be drawn straight lines, such as that which passes through z and 
u, which we have taken as an example, the surface touching these 
straight lines, and, uncovered by means of any sharp instrument, 
will form the remainder of j li o I q t' of the plane bloc, being 
the opposite side of the mould-board. 

It is fixed to the plow by mortising the fore part, o I, Fig. 25, 
into the posterior end of the share, which must be made double, 
like the handle of a pocket comb, that it may receive and secure 
this fore part of the mould-board. A screw nail is then made to 
pass through the mould-board and the handle of the share at the 
place of their contact, and two other screw nails pass through the 
tail of the mould-board and the right handle of the plow. The 
part of the tail which passes beyond the handle must be cut 
diagonally, and the work will be finished. 

a, S. ^ e nave ^ nus S lven the plan of forming 

7 the mould-board in full detail, so that the 

principle of its construction may.be clearly 

understood; but Mr. Jefferson found, in 

actual practice, that some modifications of 

it might be usefully made. Thus, he says: 

" Instead of beginning to form the block 

as represented by a b c d, Fig. 26, where 

Fig. 26. ab is twelve inches in length, and the 

angle at b is a right one, I cut off towards the ~ 

bottom and along the whole length, b c, of the 




block a wedge, bee, the line e b being equal to 
the thickness of the bar of the share (which I sup- 
pose to be one and a half inches); for, as the face 
of the wing inclines from the bar to the ground, if 
the block were placed on the share, without taking 
into the account this inclination, the side ab would i | 
lose its perpendicular direction, and the side a d 
would cease to be horizontal. Besides, instead of 
leaving at the top of the block a breadth of thir- 
teen and a half inches from m to n, I remove from J- 

W?o 27 
the right side a kind of wedge, n d i c p, of one 

and a half inches in thickness, Fig. 27; because experience has 



32 Report on Trials of Plows. 

shown me that the tail which, by these means, has become more 
oblique, as c i, instead of d i, fits more conveniently to the side 
of the handle; the diagonal of the upper face is consequently 
removed back from a to c, and we have m c, instead of m d, as 
above. These modifications may be easily comprehended by 
/hose acquainted with the general principle." 

This method, devised by Mr. Jefferson, removing, as it does, 
the formation of the plow out of the domain of empiricism, and 
enabling workmen in different sections of the country, without 
communicating with each other, to form their mould-boards pre- 
cisely alike, was one of the most valuable contributions towards 
the perfecting of plows that has ever been made by any one man, 
and will always entitle him to a conspicuous place among the 
benefactors of agriculture. 

But the credit that we award to him must be confined to the 
service which he rendered in demonstrating that plows could be 
made by rule, and to the actual discovery of one of the many 
rules that are applicable to the formation of the mould-board. 

A very slight examination of Mr. Jefferson's method will show 
its very great defects. For instance, the overhang of the wing to 
the right, e d, Fig. 19, is only four and one-half inches. This 
would only be sufficient to turn the furrow slice, when it was 
turned down hill, or, on some soils, it would answer on a level, 
but, on other soils, it would be quite insufficient to invert the slice, 
while it would be sure to tumble back into its original position 
when the furrow was turned up the hill. Modern practice shows 
that no plow can be safely relied on to invert the furrow where 
the overhang is less than forty-five degrees. 

To make this angle, the line e d, Fig. 18, must be made twelve 
inches instead of four and a half inches. Then, to complete the 
plow, according to Mr. Jefferson's rule, the perpendicular/' would 
be advanced six inches towards c, and the line g h would be 
carried forward, so that it would stand within five and a quarter 
inches of the point c. It will be very obvious that such a 
degree of bluntness would be impracticable without an expendi- 
ture of power which no farmer could afford to throw away. In 
other words, the rule is only applicable when we have an imprac- 
ticable rear wing to the mould-board or an impracticable share. 

The lower edge of the mould-board is quite too long, increasing 
the friction very unnecessarily. In our best modern plows the 



History of the Plow. 33 

vertical sections of the mould-board are either concave or convex, 
according as the soil is too light or too stiff. The vertical sections 
of Mr. Jefferson's would be all rectilinear, which are not as favor- 
able for good and easy plowing as curves. 

The straight diagonal line, m d, used as the generator of Mr. 
Jefferson's twisted surface, should have been a curve instead of a 
straight line. 

The reception of the front edge of the mould-board into a cavity 
in the posterior edge of the share, and secured by a single screw 
nail, suggests great weakness where great strength is required. 
The connection of the tail of the mould-board with the handle, 
by two screw nails, is quite too weak a connection, and would of 
itself condemn the plow in modern markets. 

Mr. Jefferson seems to have confined his attention solely to the 
mould-board, overlooking the sole, the land side, the position of 
the beam and cutter, with reference to the plane of the land side 
altogether. It will be seen, as we advance, that these points are 
all of radical importance, and that no perfection of the mould- 
board can compensate for their defects. 

At the conclusion of his paper he says that, having satisfied 
himself that the plan that he has laid down is the best, he pro- 
poses in future to have his mould-boards made of cast iron. This 
is the first allusion that we have met with in an American author 
to the use of cast iron for the plow. If we are correct in this, it 
adds greatly to his credit. 

The first of any idea, on Mr. Jefferson's part, of improving the 
plow, which Mr. Randall finds among his papers, is contained in 
his journal of a tour in Germany, made in the year 1788, when 
he was American Ambassador in France. In passing through 
Lorraine, along the banks of the Meurthe, he frequently alighted 
to observe the teams and the implements of the farmers who were 
engaged in plowing by the wayside. Some of the plows thus 
examined were more remote from the improved forms of the 
present day than those traced in the hieroglyphics of early 
Egypt. Stopping for a night at Nancy, the capital of the ancient 
dutchy, he made an entry in his journal, from which the folio wing- 
is an extract: " Oxen plow here with collars and hames. The 
awkward figure of their mould-boards leads one to consider what 
should be its form. The offices of the mould-board are to receive 
the sod after the share has cut under it, to raise it gradually and 



34 Report on Trials of Plows. 

to reverse it. The fore end of it should therefore be horizontal, 
to enter under the sod, and the hind end perpendicular, to throw 
it over; the intermediate surface changing gradually from the 
horizontal to the perpendicular. It should be as wide as the fur- 
row, and of a length suited to the construction of the plow." 
He then gives diagrams and descriptions, which have already been 
described in detail. The entries in the journal show that the 
whole plan was at that time clearly developed in his mind. 

When he resided in Philadelphia, as Secretary of State under 
General Washington, he consulted the celebrated David Ritten- 
house as to whether his proposed plow was founded on mathe- 
matical principles, and Mr. Rittenhouse, after a careful examination 
of the whole question, made that fact demonstrable. 

In 1793 Mr. Jefferson, as we are informed by Mr. Randall, put 
his theory to the test of practical experiment. He had several 
plows made after his patterns, and put into use on his estates, in 
Albemarle and Bedford counties, in Virginia, and became fully 
satisfied of their practical utility. 

Mr. Strickland, a member of the Enolish board of agriculture, 
travelled in this country and saw these plows in operation. Being 
much pleased with their operation, he took home drawings of 
them, which he submitted to his associates in the board. They 
were so highly approved that Jefferson was elected as an honorary 
member of the board, and was requested by Sir John Sinclair, its 
president, to forward a model and a full description of his inven- 
tion. Mr. Jefferson complied with his request, and the letter to 
Sir John was printed in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, from which 
we have compiled the preceding account of his invention. 

The originality of Mr. Jefferson's discovery was contested by 
William Amos, in a communication published in 1808, but he gives 
no proofs of it, and Mr. Jefferson certainly was mil foolish enough 
to present his method as original to two learned societies, who had 
the means of at once detecting the imposture. The fact thai 
these bodies, the French Academy and the English Board of 
Agriculture, acknowledged the invention to be his Own, must 
forever sel the quest] m at rest. 

The discoveiy has also been claimed for flames Small, bul Sir 
John Sinclair distinctly slates that Small perfected his plow 
gradually and experimentally, and without the assistance of the 
key which Mr. Jefferson's principle would have given him. Ilisim- 



History of the Plow. 



35 



provements were empirical, and were not at first guided by any 
mathematical principles whatever. There can be no doubt what- 
ever that Mr. Jefferson is solely entitled to the honor of inventing 
the first mould-board made on mathematical principles. We have 
inserted this account of Mr. Jefferson's discovery in the chapter 
on European plows, because his method was first published in 
Europe. 



CHAPTER III. 



HISTORY OF THE PLOW— Continued. 

The celebrated James Small, of Scotland, was the next great 
improver of the theory and practice of plow-making. He was 
the first inventor of the cast-iron plow, though the beam and 
handle were still made of wood. He took the Rotherham plow 
as the basis, and improved it in almost every particular. 

He established his manufactory at Black Adder Mount, in Ber- 
wickshire, in 1763, and died about thirty years afterwards; having 
distinguished nearly every one of those years by some new 
improvement in some of the parts. He left the implement at his 
death so nearly perfect that to this day it is used in many of the 
largest and best cultivated districts in Scotland, and prized more 
highly than any other. The cut, showing Small's chain plow, 
Fig. 28, gives his first efforts to improve the Rotherham plow, 
which will be readily seen on a comparison of the drawings rep- 
resenting them. 




Fig. 28. 
The plow as finally perfected by Small, and generally known 
as the East Lothian Plow, has attained to so high a degree of 
celebrity, and proved itself so advantageous to farmers, that we 
propose to give its details very fully, from Stephens' Book of the 
Farm. 



36 Report on Trials of Plows.- 

Plate II, fig. 49, represents an elevation of the plow on the 
furrow side, drawn to a scale of one inch to a foot, and Fig. 50, a 
horizontal plan of the same. It is found with various shades of 
difference, but not to the extent or of such marked character as 
to require separate description from what follows. The beam 
and handles are almost invariably made of malleable iron, the 
body frame being of cast iron, the latter varying slightly with 
different makers. In its construction the beam and left handle 
are usually finished in one continued bar, ABC, possessing the 
varied curvature exhibited in Fig. 49, as viewed in elevation. 
When viewed in plan, as in Fig. 50, the axis or central line of the 
beam and left handle are in a straight line, though in this arrange- 
ment there are some slight deviations among the different makers — 
the point of the beam being in some cases turned more or less to 
the right or furrow side, and this is found to vary from one-half 
inch to two inches from the plane of the land side. The right 
handle, D E, is formed on a separate bar, and is attached to the 
body frame at its fore end by a bolt, as will be shown in detail, 
and farther connected to the left handle by the bolts F F F and 
the stays G G. The coulter, I, is fixed in its box, K, by means of 
iron wedges holding it in the proper position. Its office being 
that of a cutting instrument, it is constructed with a sharp edge, 
and is set at an angle of from 55 deg. to 65 deg. with the base line. 
The mould-board, L, which is fixed upon the body frame and to 
the right handle, is a curved plate of cast iron, adapted for turn- 
ing over the furrow slice. Its fore edge or breast, M N, coincides 
with the land side of the plow's body; its lower edge, T, behind, 
stands from nine to ten inches distant from the plane of the land 
side, Avhile its upper edge, P, spreads out to a distance of nine- 
teen inches from B, the land side plane. In this plow the mould- 
board is truncated in the fore part, and is met by the gorge or 
neck of the share, the junction being at the line N. The nhai-r 
or sock, N R, is fitted upon a prolongation of the sole bar of the 
body frame termed the head, and falls into the curves of the 
mould-board, of which its surface forms a continuation. The 
bridle, C, or muzzle, as it is sometimes named, is that part to 
which the draught is applied, and is attached to the point of I he 
beam by two bolts, the one, S, being permanent, upon which the 
bridle turns vertically. The other bolt, U, is movable, for 
the purpose of varying the earthing of the plow; the landing 
being varied by shilling the draught bolt and shackle, V, to light 



History of the Plow. 37 

or left. The right and left handles are furnished at A and D with 
wooden helves, fitted into the sockets of the handles. If any one 
will take the trouble to compare the means employed in Jethro 
lull's plow, Plate I, to make the plow run deeper or shallower, 
more to land or from land, with the arrangements for this purpose 
in the Eotherham plow, Fig. 16, they will see that a great 
advance has been made, but an inspection of Small's bridle, as 
shown in the plate, will demonstrate that much more convenience 
and certainty has been attained by him in this respect, and nothing 
since has been invented to accomplish this object which can be 
pronounced materially superior to it. 

The general dimensions of this plow may be stated thus, as 
measured on the base line: From the zero point, O, to the 
extremity of the heel, T, the distance is four inches, and from O 
forwards to the point of the share, R, the distance is thirty-two 
inches — giving as the entire length of the sole, three feet. Again, 
from O backward to the extremity of the handles, A', is six feet 
two inches, and forward to the draught bolt, V, four feet seven 
inches, making the entire length of the plow on the base line ten 
feet nine inches; but, following the sinuosities of the beam and 
handle, the entire length from A to C is about eleven feet three 
inches. Although we have explained the word zero, used above, 
in the chapter "On the Mechanical Conditions of the Plow," yet, 
as it is a point of great importance in regulating the proportions 
of the implement, and has received very little attention from 
American plow makers, we here observe that the zero line is that 
which, on the surface of the mould-board, where a vertical trans- 
verse section at right angles to the plane of the land side falls, 
which is distant from that plane by a space equal to the greatest 
breadth of the furrow taken by the respective plows. The zero 
point is found on this line, at an altitude above the sole the exact 
height of the furrow slice. Or we may define it as that vertical 
section of the mould-board which, in its progress under the slice, 
will just touch the latter when in a vertical position. The scale 
in this arrangement counts right and left of zero. 

In reference to the body of the plow, the center of the coulter 
box, K, is fourteen and a half inches, and the top of the breast 
curve, M, nine inches before the zero point, both as measured on 
the base line; but, following the rise of the beam, the distance 
from M to the middle of the coulter box will be seven inches. 

The heights at the different points above the base line are 



38 Report on Trials of Plows. 

marked on the figure in elevation, along the upper edge of the 
beam and handle; but the chief points in height are repeated 
here, the whole of them being measured from the base line 
to the upper edge of the beam and handles at the respective 
points. At the left handle, A, the height is three feet, at the 
right handle, D, two feet nine inches; and a like difference in the 
1 1 eight of the two is preserved till the right handle approaches 
the body at the middle stretcher, F; thence the difference increases 
till it reaches the body. The height at the point of the beam 
is eighteen inches, and the centre of the draught bolt, at a medium, 
seventeen inches. The lower edge of the mould-board behind, 
of this plow at T, is usually set about half an inch above the base 
line, and at the junction with the share about the same height. 

The dimensions in breadth, from the land side line, embrace the 
obliquity that is given to the direction of the beam and handles, 
compared with the land side plane of the body taken at the sole. 
The amount of obliquity, as exhibited by the clotted line, A C, 
Fig. 50, which coincides with the land side plane of the body, 
is that the axis of the beam at the extremity C stands one and a 
quarter inches to the right, and, at the opposite end, the left 
handle, A, stands about two inches to the left of the line. These 
points may, however, be raised slightly from the dimensions here 
given. In the first — the point of the beam — it is found in the 
practice of different makers to range from one to two inches. 

The dimensions of the parts of the frame work of the plow 
are: The beam, at its junction with the mould-board at M, is from 
two and a half to two and three-quarter inches in depth, by one 
inch in breadth — the same strength being preserved onward to 
the coulter box, K. From the last point a diminution in breach li 
and depth begins, which is carried on to the extremity, c, where 
the beam has a depth of one and three-quarter inches, and a breadth 
of one-half to five-eighths of an inch. 

The coulter box is formed by piercing an oblong mortise through 
fhe bar, which lias been previously forged with a protuberance at 
this place, on each side and at the upper edge; the mortise is two 
and one-half inches by t hree-quarters of an inch. 

From the junction with the mould-board at M, backward, the 
beam decreases gradually till, at the hind palm of the body at B, 
it is two inches in depth and live-eighths of an inch in breadth 
where it merges in the left handle. A. This last member retains 
a nearly uniform size throughoul of two inches by three-eighths 



History of the Plow. 



39 



of an inch. The right handle, D, is somewhat lighter, being 
usually one and one-half inches by three-eighths of an inch, and 
both terminate in welded sockets which receive wooden helves of 
six or eight inches in length. The stretchers, FFF, which sup- 
port and retain the handles at their due distance apart, are in 
length suited to their positions in the handles, and their thickness 
is about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, tapering toward the 
ends, where they terminate in a collar and tail bolt with a screwed 
nut. The upper stretcher has also a semicircular stay riveted to 
its middle, the tails of the stays, G G, terminating, like the 
stretcher, with screwed tails and nuts. 

Having given the general dimensions and outline description of 
this plow, there remains to be described the details of the body 
frame and its sheathing, all the figures of which are on a scale of 
one and one-half inches to one foot. 

The Body Frame. — The different views of the body frame are 
exhibited in the Figs. 29 and 30, wherein the same letters refer to 




WATERS-SON SC.N.Y. 



Fig. 29. 



Fig. 29 is an 



the corresponding parts in the different figures. 

elevation of the furrow side; Fig. 30 a plan of the sole bar of the 

frame inverted; and a vertical section on the line XX is given in 

a 




Fig. SO. 

Fig. 31. In all the figures, then, a a a is the sole bar, with two 
arms, b and c, extending upwards, and having at the lower edge 
a flange, d, running along the right hand side. Each ofrthe arms, 



40 Rerobt on Trials of Plows. 

b, c, terminates in a palm, ef, by which it is bolted to the beam. 
The arm, c, is furnished, besides, with an oblique palm or ear, g. 
upon which the fore edge of the mould-board rests and to which 
it is bolted. The sole bar, a, with its flange, terminates forward 
in the head, 7^, which is here made to form the commencement of 
the twist of the mould-board, and upon which the share is fitted, 
reaching to the dotted line, n", Fig. 29. The fore edge, hi I, of 
the frame is worked into the curve, answering to the oblique sec- 
tion of the fore edge or breast of the mould-board, and serves as 
a support to the latter throughout their junction. The curvature 
given to the arm, b, is unimportant to the action of the plow, but 
the general oblique direction here given to it is well adapted to 
withstand the thrust constantly exerted in that direction when the 
plow is at work. In Fig. 30, the sloping edge, d m, represents 
the enlargement of the sole bar on which the share is fitted and 
where the lower part of the fore edge of the mould-board rests. 
The depressed portion, m n, is that which is embraced by the 
flange of the share. In the frame, o, is the lower extremity of the 
right handle broken off at o, to show the manner in which it is 
joined to the sole flange of the frame by the bolt, p. The bolt 
holes, q q, are those by which the beam is secured to the palms 
of the frame; r rare those by which the land side plate is attached, 
and s s those of the sole shoe, t, being that which 
secures the mould-board to the ear, and u that which 
receives the lower stretcher of the handles. (See 
Fig. 50, Plate II, at F and O.) The letter v marks 
the second bolt hole of the mould-board, while its 
third fixture is effected upon the right handle by the 
'& intervention of a bracket, or of a bolt and socket as 
seen at o, Plate II. The curved lines, w w, mark the 
position of the beam -when attached to the body, 
the beam being received into the seats formed on the 
land side of the palms, e,f, as seen more distinctly at 
w in Fig. 31. 

The body frame being an important member of the implement, 
regard is paid to having it as light as may be consistent with a 
due degree of strength; hence, in the different parts breadth has 
been given them in the direction of the strain, while the thickness 
is studiously attenuated in such places as can be reduced with 
safety. The least breadth of the sole bar, a, is three and three- 
quarter inches, of the arm. <■. four and one halt' inches, and of b, 




History of the Plow. 



41 



two and one-quarter inches. The breadth ot the sole flange is 
two inches, the greatest thickness in any of the parts is three- 
quarters of an inch, and the total weight of the frame is thirty 
pounds. 

The Share. — Figs. 32 to 37 are illustrations of the share and 
its configuration; Fig. 32 is a plan; Fig. 33 a geometrical eleva- 




Fig. 34.-35. 




a IT 

Fig. 33. 

g? a h\ 




Fig. 32. 

tion of the furrow side, and Fig. 34 is a direct end view looking 
forward, of which a is the boss adapted to the curvature of the 
mould-board; b, the land side flange, which embraces the head 
of the land side; c, the sole flange, embracing in like manner the 
head below; and these three parts form the neck or socket of the 
share, fitting closely upon the head, and being in effect part of 
the mould-board. The part d ef, Fig. 32, forms the share proper, 
consisting of dee, the shield terminating in the point e, and of 
the feather or cutter running off at the point e. The extreme 
breadth of the share in this plow, measuring from the land side to 
the point g of the feather (or the rear angle of the feather), varies 
from six to six and one-half inches; and its length in the sole, 
including the neck, b, is about sixteen inches, the feather, g e, 
being eleven inches. 

The other figures, 36 and 37, are transverse sections of the 
share on the lines gg and hh, respectively, exhibiting the struc- 
ture and relation of the shield, and the feather represented by 
the line A' V, Fig. 49, Plate II, where, as will be observed, the 
cutting edge, through its entire length, lies within less than one- 
quarter of an inch of the base line. 

The share is of wrought iron, aud is always formed from a 



42 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



1 



cL 



■Fiff' 



plate forged for the express purpose at the iron mills, and known 
in the trade by the term sock plate. Fig. 38 represents tiie form 

in which those plates are 
manufactured, the thick- 
ness being from one-half 
-- |h to three-quarters of an 
inch; they are afterwards 
cut in two through the 
ine a b, each half being 
capable of forming a 
share. To do this, an incision, c a, is made on the short side to a 
depth of two inches; the part a c d e is afterward folded down 
to form the sole flange, and the part b f g is in like manner folded 
down to form the land side flange. The point h is strengthened, 
when requisite, to receive the proper form of the shield and 
point, the latter being tipped with steel. The edge, h c, is 
extended to the requisite breadth to form the feather. In order 
to cut a sock plate at the proper angle, so as to secure a minimum 
expenditure of labor and material, let a central line, h h\ be drawn 
upon the plate, and bisect this line in the point k\ the line upon 
which the plate should be cut will form angles of 70 deg. and 110 
deg. nearty with the line h h, or mechanically draw k I equal to 
five and one-half inches, at right angles to h h, and draw / i 
parallel to h h, mark off two inches from I to *", and through the 
point a i k draw the line a b, which is the proper direction in 
which the plate should be cut. 

The Sole Shoe. — The figures 39 to 41 are illustrative of the 
sole shoe. Fig. 39 is a plan of the shoe, a a being the sole flange, 
and b b the land side flange; Fig. 40 is an elevation of the same, 
and Fig. 41 a cross section, showing the filling up of the internal 
angle, opposed to where the greatest wear takes place. 

The thickness of the sole flange at the heel a is seven-eighths 
of an inch, diminishing forward to three-eighths of an inch at 
Three inches from the point, and thence it is thinned oil' to pre- 
vent obstruction in its progress through the soil. The breadth of 
I lie sole is two and one-quarter inches, and its extreme length 
twenty and one-half inches. The side flange is one-half of an inch 
thick along the c^ixc by which it is attached to the sole, diminish- 
ing upward to one-quarter of an inch at the top q^o. the height 
being four and three-quarter inches at the heel, and six inches at 
I lu» fore end ; the weight fs about fourteen pounds. The upper 



History of the Plow. 



43 



land side plate is eighteen inches in length on the lower edge, 
being one and one-half inches longer than the corresponding edge 
of the sole plate, the purpose of which will be seen in the figure 
of the land side, Fig. 46 ; the length of the upper edge is twenty - 





Fig. 39. 




Fig. 4/. 



one and one-half inches. The breadth and the contour of the 
upper edge must be adapted to the form that may have been 
given to the beam. The thickness at the lower edge must agree 
with that of the sole plate, and be diminished to one-half of an 
inch at the upper edge ; weight, nine pounds. 

The coulter, Fig. 42, is an edge, and Fig. 43 a side view of the 
coulter of this plow, in which the same letters of reference are 
a> be «J 



—Ml ftiiiMMM^ i , .. ■ . i • ; ■ iii'liitiiiiliiliiiiiiiiini ^^ 

Fig. £2. 




Fig. 43. 
applied. The neck a b, by which it is affixed in the coulter box, 
is about ten inches long, though it may, with all propriety, be 
extended to c ; the neck is usually about two inches in breadth, and 
three-quarters of an inch in thickness. The blade bed varies in 
length, according to the variety of the plow to which it belongs, 
from eighteen to twenty-two inches. The breadth of the blade is 
usually about three inches in the upper part, but is curved off 
behind, and terminating in a point at d. The thickness of the 
back at the shoulder b is three-quarters of an inch, and tapers 
gently downward to where the curvature of the back begins ; 
thence it diminishes toward the point to one-eighth of an inch or 
less. It is formed quite flat on the land side, and on the furrow 



44 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



side is beveled off towards the cutting edge, where it is about 
one-eighth of an inch thick throughout the length of the edge. 

The Bridle. — Fig. 44 is a plan, and Fig. 45 is a corresponding 
elevation of the bridle, and of the manner of its attachment to the 
beam, where a is part of the beam, b the cross head, and c c the 




Fiff. 44. 



tails of the bridle, with their arc heads, d, embracing the beam on 
the two sides ; e is the joint bolt on which the bridle turns for 
adjustment to earthing ; /is the temper pin or bolt, and by insert- 
ing it into any one of the holes in the arc heads, and passing 
through the beam, which is here perforated for the purpose, the 
bridle is held in any required position. The draught shackle g 
is held upon its place upon the cross head b by the draught bolt 
h passing through both parts, and the cross head being perforated 
with five or more holes ; the bolt or shackle can be shifted from 
right to left, or from left to right, for the proper adjustment of 
the landing of the plow. To the shackle is appended the swivel 
hook e, to which is attached the main draught bar or swingle tree 
of the yoke. 

The Land Side. — Figs. 46 and 47 are illustrations of the laud 
side ; Fig. 4(3 being an elevation of the body of the plow, repre 
sented in the working positions, but with the extremities cut off 
The point of the share and the heel rest upon the base line at a 
and b, and the lines of the sole lying between these form the very 
obtuse angle, which obtains in the sole of this plow ; a c is the 
.share, and d b ifi the sole shoe; e is the land side plate, and f g 
is n pari of the beam. The lines a d and <1 6, together with the 



History of the Plow. 



45 



base line, form the very low triangle a d b, whose altitude at d 
does not exceed three-eighths of an inch, or by extending the sole 
line b d to h, the depression h a, of the point of the share below 
this extended line, will be one-half inch nearly. Fig. 47 repre- 




Fig. 46'. 



o 

l-n-»- 



iScaie 
i. 



Z. Ft. 




Fig. Z-7. 

sents a horizontal sole shoe. Here a c is the share, b d is the 
sole flange of the body frame, the bolt hole at b being that by 
which the palm of the right handle is fixed to the flange ; e and 
f the two arms of the frame as cut across in the section g i, the 
land side of the sole shoe coinciding with the land side plane ; 
the continuation of this line g i to h exhibits the inclination of the 
share to the land side, which, in this plow, may be taken at one- 
half an inch. 

The inclination downward given to the share is intended, and 
experience confirms the intention, to give steadiness of motion to 
the implement by giving it a lengthened base on which to stand. 
It is evident that if a base the converse of this were given to it, 
convex instead of concave, so that it should rest on the point d, 
when in motion, the smallest obstruction occurring at the point 
of the share would give it a tendency to swerve from the hori- 
zontal line of progression, and to lose either depth of furrow or 
be thrown out, thus rendering the management of the plow very 
difficult and uncertain. Even a perfectly straight base is found 



46 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



not to give the requisite certainty of action, without a greater 
amount of exertion, as well as closer attention on the part of the 
plowman. A like reason prevails for this inclination of the share 
landward as does for its earthward inclination; and, for the steady 
motion of the plow, the latter is even more necessary than the 
Vormer; but there is another reason for this landward inclination, 
which is that, as the plow is seldom held with the land side truly 
vertical, but inclining a little landward, and it being desirable to 
cut the furrow slice, as near as possible, rectangular, the coulter 
has always a slight tendency landward at the point; hence it 
becomes necessary to give the share a like bias. By this arrange- 
ment of the parts the incision made by the coulter will be nearly 
vertical. While it is admitted that these inclinations of the share 
afford certain advantages in the action of the plow, it must not be 
concealed that the practice is liable to abuse. 

The curves of the mould-board of this plow are given at Figs. 
Ill and 112, Plate III. As plow diagrams in this form are not 
familiar to farmers and plow-makers in this country, it may be 
proper to give some explanation of the manner in which they are 
obtained and the precise lines of the plow which they represent. 
Fig. 48 represents the instrument by the aid of which these lines 




mg. AS. 

arc obtained. Lines q r, o p, etc., are ruled on the horizontal 
surface two inches apart. The plow to be analyzed is placed upon 
the table, with the plane of its land side perpendicular to the plane 
of the table, its sole line at right angles to the ruled lines and the 
front edge of the mould-hoard, /, on the line wm u; draw the line 
I m at right angles to W m. making il as long as the mould-board 



Plate III. 

ANALYTICAL SECTIONS OF MOULD-BOARDS. 

Fig. in. The East Lothian. Fig. 112. 

b 




O «' ~b c iL 




Fig. 113. The Mid Lothian 

b 



Fig. 114. 





Fig. 115. The Berwickshire. Fig. 116. 

\ 





Fig. 117. The Lanarkshire. Fig. 118. 





.12 9 6 :-{ o 



Sca.lc 



History of the Plow. 47 

of the plow; ill is a board about three feet square, provided with 
broad feet behind, which can be fastened securely to the table, 
w x m y, by means of thumb screws. The two parallelograms, 
abed and edef, are connected by pins, as shown in the figure, 
so that all the joints can work freely; the lower end of the bar, 
ef, has a stout wire, j, inserted into it for a tracer. A sheet of 
paper, i' h', is tacked to the board, i h, at the four corners, and a 
tracing pencil is inserted in the socket, g. The face of the board 
is now set on the line q r, the face of the square, v r, is set on the 
line i, the face,v u, lying on the table parallel to m I. The tracer, 
j, is then brought up to the top of the mould-board and is carried 
along to the bottom, touching the surface at every point in its 
passage, being directed by the face, v r, the line of motion being 
recorded accurately by the pencil, g, on the paper, i' 1L The face 
of the board is now set on the line o p, and the face of the square, 
v r, is placed on the line 2, and the line 2 is traced on the paper 
as before. In this way the board is successively set backward on 
all the lines ruled on the table, taking care that its lower right- 
hand corner is kept on the line in I until all the lines of the mould- 
board are transferred to the paper. A little attention to the action 
of the jointed parallelograms, abed and cdef, will show that 
the path of the pencil, g, must be exactly parallel to that of the 
tracer, j. If the point of the tracer passes down a vertical line, 
the pencil will trace a vertical line on the paper. If it passes 
along a horizontal line, or an angle of 45 deg., or over a convex 
or concave line, precisely similar lines will be traced on the paper, 
and it is by this method that the lines of the figures on Plate IV 
have been traced. It may be, perhaps, proper to say that the 
bars, ab, c 0, and ef, are each three feet long, one and one-half 
inches wide, and three-quarters of an inch thick. The four bars, 
a c, b d, c e and df, are of similar breadth and thickness, and are 
all made of hard wood, and are jointed together on brass studs, 
care being taken that the perforations are all made exactly equi- 
disiant from each other. 

Fig. Ill of Plate III is a geometrical elevation of Small's or 
the East Lothian plow in a plane parallel to the land side of the 
mould-board, / d being its base line. The perpendicular lines of 
division, commencing from the line o o, or zero, and extending 
right and left, are the lines of section. Those to the right or fore 
end of the mould-board, marked a a, bb, etc. The curved line, 
x y'a, represents the with described on the face of the mould-board 



48 Report on Trials of Plows. 

by the lower land side edge of the furrow slice, as the mould- 
board passes under it, which is called the line of transit. 

Fig. 112 is a front view in elevation of the same ploiv, and cor- 
responding to Fig. Ill, Plate III; km is the base line, m g is the 
land side plane in a vertical position, m also is the place of the 
point of the share, and h i the line of junction between the neck 
of the share and the mould-board; the remaining lines beyond h i 
exhibit the outline of all the sections taken by the instrument in 
reference to the lines in Fig. 111. Thus o og m is the section of 
the entire body of the plow in the plane of the zero, o y o being 
the outline of the mould-board at this section, and y the zero 
point; aagm, the first section forward of the zero, b b g m, the 
second, and so on. In like manner, 1 1 g m is the first section 
backward from the zero, 2 2 g m the next section backward, and 
so on, each section so lettered and numbered having relation to 
the divisions carrying the corresponding letters and numerals in 
Fig. 111. The entire series of lines 112 2, etc., and a abb, etc., 
thus form a series of profiles of the mould-board, supposing it to 
be cut vertically by planes at right angles to the land side of the 
plow. In Fig. 112, also, the dotted line, myz, represents the 
line of transit, as in Fig. Ill, and zk represents a transverse sec- 
tion of the slice as finally deposited by the mould-board. 

Mr. Stephens, it will be observed, gives none of the horizontal 
lines, confining himself wholly to the vertical lines; in fact, very 
little attention is paid to these lines in any part of Europe, being 
left to arrange themselves by chance out of the arrangement of the 
vertical lines, which alone receive attention. In this respect it 
will be seen hereafter they differ very materially from the best 
class of American plows, in which much attention is very properly 
given to the arrangement of the transverse lines. 

The reason for this difference is found in the fact that the plow- 
men of Great Britain have an almost superstitious reverence for 
the high shouldered, crested furrow. The proprietor and the 
plowman both delight to stand on the headland when the work is 
done and survey the even furrows, laid so straight that the pencil 
rather than the plow would seem to have traced them. The fur- 
rows must be of precisely even thickness, in all their length. No 
departure from a mathematical straight line is tolerated. You 
must see a mouse running in the bottom of every furrow from 
end to end. But the crowning glory in their eyes was to see the 
crowning angle of the furrow slice unbroken and unabraded from 



History of the Plow. 



49 



end to end. The plow which insures this result most certainly is 
the best plow in their eyes, even though it should require more 
power to draw it, though it should wear out faster, and though it 
were far more costly than another. 

The English plowmen would not subscribe to our chapter on 
" The Objects to be Accomplished by Plowing.' 7 The plow is not 
the implement to pulverize, in their view, but the harrow. Pul- 
verizing properties would be objectionable to them, as it would 
interfere with a sharply defined crest. Since the vertical lines of 
the plow are those which determine the shape of the crest, it is 
not wonderful that their formation should have monopolized the 
ingenuity of the English plow wrights. 

Turning our attention to the sections of the various plows given 
in Plates III and IV, we shall see plainly enough that all the 
plows there given have been constructed with reference to this 
object. On inspecting Fig. 112 we see that the lines of the plow 
in front, c c, b b and a a, are concave above the line of transit, 
while those in the rear , 1 1 and 2 2, are concave below that line. 
The lines in contact with the slice are all of them straight, or 
nearly so, agreeing in this respect with the plan of Mr. Jefferson. 
It differs from his in this, that as the generating line of this plow 
as Small finally made it, is a catenary curve, Mr. Jefferson's gene- 
rating line is a straight line. This will be understood by a recur- 
rence to Fig. 18, which represents Mr. Jefferson's method of 
forming the twist of his mould-board. 



<- 



fT 



\i 




F iff. Z-9 



If we now take in elevation, Fig. 49, what is shown in plan in 
Fig. 18, by erecting a post, d d', twelve inches high at the point 
d. and stretching a cord tightly from d ' to b, we shall have Mr. 
4 



50 Report on Trials of Plows. 

Jefferson's generating line; one end of a twelve-inch rule carried 
along from b to d', Fig. 49, and the other end along e c, Fig. 18, 
will describe the twist of his mould-board in the air. The twist 
of Small's mould-board is obtained by extending the cord d ' b, 
and suffering the slack to fall by its own gravity, when it will 
assume the curve d' o b. One end of the ruler beins; carried 
from b through o, along to d ', Fig. 49, and the other along the 
line e c, Fig. 18, will describe in the air the twist of Small's 
mould-board. By the substitution of a curved line for a straight 
one, Small obtains a wider wing without making the fore part of 
the plow too blunt, and thus insures the result so highly coveted 
by the British plowman, of giving a high sharp crest to the 
furrow. It is difficult to imagine any practical purpose which is 
obtained in giving concavity to the parts above the transit line in 
the fore part, and below it in the hind part of Small's plow. The 
zero line o o, it will be seen, makes a very small angle with the 
line which at first was the bottom of the furrow slice, but which 
has now assumed a vertical position, and hence there is a corres- 
pondingly small tendency to break off or abrade the corner y, 
which, when finally deposited, forms the crest. The angle thus 
formed with the lower face of the furrow slice is much smaller 
than in the Eotherham plow, which had a tendency to break off 
the crest, and it is to this circumstance more than its superior 
lightness and its improved mechanical construction that the great 
popularity of Small's plow was owing. 

The next improvement in the plow was made by Mr. Wilkie, 
of Uddingstone, near Glasgow. We have used the word " improve- 
ment;" we had better have used the word alteration, for until 
this day it is not fairly settled that it is really better than Small's. 
It is now generally known as the Lanarkshire Plow. The body 
frame, which in Small's plow, Fig. 28. is made of cast iron, is 
made of malleable iron in the Lanarkshire; the two arms, b and 
C, instead of being bolted to the frame are welded to it, and form 
prolongations from the beam and left handle. The bridle, coulter 
and some other parts show trifling Variations of form, but nothing 
differs in principle from Small's, except that it is provided with 
two very useful appendages, which should be attached to all 
plows, as they save much time, and their presence will induce 
the plowman to temper his irons ami keep the plow in much 
better condition lor work than he would do in their absence. 



History of the Plow. 



51 



They are the plow-staff and hammer nut-key, represented in Fig. 



50 and Fig. 51. 




Fig. 50. 

Comparing the sections of this plow, 
Plate III, figs. 117 and 118, it will be seen 
Fig. 5/. that the lines are sharply convex, which 

will increase its pulverizing power, as will be shown hereafter, and 
it will also be seen that the zero line o o coincides for half its length' 
with the face of the furrow slice in its vertical position, and there- 
fore has less tendency to rub the angle at y, than Small's plow. 
It is two inches narrower from the beam to the rear upper angle 
of the mould-board; the left handle stands nine inches farther to 
the left. The edge of the feather rises from the point to the rear 
angle of the feather. The Mid LotJdan Plow partakes of the 
characteristics of the Lanarkshire and East Lothian plows. The 
curves of its mould-board, as seen in Plate III, figs. 113 and 111, 
show a tendency to convexity in the extreme lower part, while 
the greater portion of the upper part are straight, like Small's. 
The zero line makes a smaller angle with the vertical furrow 
slice, and has therefore less tendency to disturb it. Its share 
rises from the point to the rear corner of the feather, like that of 
the Lanarkshire, and it will of course leave the bottom of the 
furrow as represented in Fig. 98. 

Mr. Stephens has invented a mathematical method of forming 
a mould-board, which, though substantially on the plan of Mr. 
Jefferson's, has some modifications which are decided improve- 
ments. Instead of using a straight diagonal, like Mr. Jefferson, 
he uses the arc of a circle, and, by lateral additions to his block, 
he is enabled to make such an overhang to the wing of the mould- 
board as to make it fall into its place with certainty, and, at the 
same time, to give an easy and gradual entrance to the breast of 
the plow. We give his method in his own words: 

"From a careful study of the foregoing diagrams (Plates III 
and IV), and from a comparison of numerous implements and 
their practical effects, together with a consideration of the dynam- 
ical principles on which the plow operates, I have been led to 
adopt a theoretical form of mould-board, which seems to fulfill 
all the conditions required in the investigation, and which is capa- 
ble, by very simple modifications, of adaptation to the circum- 



52 Report on Trials of Plows. 

stances of the medium on which it works. In the outset it is 
assumed that the soil is homogeneous, and that it possesses such a 
degree of tenacity and elasticity as to yield to the passing form 
of the plow, and to resume, when laid in the due position, that 
form which was first impressed upon the slice by the action of 
the share and coulter: the second consideration being the cutting: 
of a slice from the solid land. In a theoretical view, this must 
be. an operation through its whole depth and breadth; hence 
the share is conceived to be a cutting edge, which shall have a 
horizontal breadth equal to the breadth of the slice that is to be 
raised, and that the face or land side of the coulter shall stand al- 
right angles to this. Another consideration is, that the slice now 
supposed to be cut has to be raised on one side and turned over 
through an angle of 135 deg., the turning over being performed 
on the lower right hand edge, as on a hinge, through the first 90 
deg., the remaining 45 deg. being performed on what was at first 
the upper right hand edge («?, Fig. 97). The slice, in going 
through this evolution, has to undergo a twisting action and be 
again returned to its original form of a right prism. To accom- 
plish this last process, it is evident that a wedge, twisted on its 
upper surface, must be the agent; and to find the form and dimen- 
sions of this' wedge is solving the problem that gives the surface 
of the mould-board required. 

We have seen, Fig. 97, that the slice, in passing through the 
first ninety degrees, describes the quadrant d h with its lower 
edge, and in doing so we can conceive a continued slice to form 
the solid of revolution a b c d e, Fig. 123, Plate IV, which is 
a quarter of a cylinder, as shown here in isometrical perspective; 
the radius a b or a c, being equal to the breadth of the slice. We 
have next to consider the angle of elevation of the twisted wedge; 
and in doing so Ave must not only consider the least resistance, 
but also the most convenient length of the wedge. In taking a 
low angle, which would present, of course, proportionally little 
resistance, it would at the same time yield a length of mould 
board that would be highly inconvenient, seeing that the generat- 
ing point, in any section of the slice, musl ultimately reach the 
same height, whether by a high or a low angle. From experience, 
we find that from the point of the share to that point in the plow's 
body where the slice arrives at the perpendicular position, which 
I have named the zero, thai thirty inches form a convenient 
length. The length c d of the solid is therefore made equal to 



Plate IV. 
ANALYTICAL, SECTIONS OF MOULD-BOARDS. 

Fig. 119. 'The Western Fifeshire. Fig. 120. 




bed *~_ 




Ransomed F F. 




Fig. 122 




Fig. 127. 



The New Mould-Board. 
(Figs. 123-128.) 



Fig. 128. 







History of the Plow. 53 

thirty inches or more, and this being divided into ten equal parts, 
the parallels 11, 22, 33, &c, are to be drawn upon the cylindrical 
surface, and between the points b d a curve has to be described 
that shall be the line of transit of the slice. After investigating 
the application of various curves to this purpose, I have found 
that the circular arc is the only one that can be adopted. It pre- 
sents the least attainable resistance in the first stages of the 
ascent, where the force required to raise the slice is greatest, and 
in the last stages where the force of raising has vanished, leaving 
only what is necessary to turn the slice over, there the resistance is 
greatest ; and, above all, the circle being of equal flexure through- 
out, it is in every way best adapted to the objects here required. 
To determine the radius of curvature of this arc, we must evolve 
the cylindrical surface, cbde, and from it construct the diagram, 
Fig. 124, Plate IV. Draw eh equal to c d of Fig. 123; e d equal 
to & the length of the arc, cb or d e, and at right angles to eb; 
divide eb into ten equal parts, and from the points of division 
draw the ordinates If, 2g, dh, etc., parallel to e d; from b set off 
ten inches for the length of the share along the line b e, which 
will fall one inch beyond the division 7, and at this distance 
draw the dotted line parallel to 7m; upon this set 'off two and one- 
half inches, and through the three points, dmb, describe an arc 
of a circle, whose radius will be found equal to the circumference 
of the cylinder, of which a b c, Fig. 123, is a quadrant. The 
circular arc thus found is to be transferred to the cylindrical 
surface cbde. The transfer may be performed by drawing the 
arc on paper, and the paper then laid over the cylindrical surface 
in such a manner that the points, b m d, shall be brought to coin- 
cide with the points, b m d, of the cylindrical surface; when the 
remaining points /^ h i, or any number more, may be marked on 
the cylindrical quadrant by pricking through the paper with a 
pointed instrument at short intervals along the arc; or the lengths 
of the ordinates, If, 2g, U, of Fig. 124, maybe transferred to the 
corresponding parallels of Fig. 123, when the lengths of the 
ordinates will cut the parallels in the points/^ 7i, etc.. In either 
case the curve can now be traced through the points bpn m, etc., 
on the cylindrical surface. Through the points bpnm, etc., draw 
the dotted lines, //', g g\ hh', parallel to cd or b e, and from the 
centre, a, draw the radii of, ag\ ah', etc.; the unequal divi- 
sions of the arc, c b, will thus show the proportion of angles of 
ascent of the slice along the transit now found, b p n, etc., for 



54 Report on Trials of Plows. 

each division of the length, while the degree of flexure in the 
curve or line of transit remains uniform by the same, from any 
one point to any other equidistant points. 

To convert the prism thus prepared and lined off into that of 
the twisted wedge, we have only to cut away that portion of it 
contained within the boundaries abed x, preserving the terminal 
edges ab, ax and dx, and the prism will thus be resolved into a 
form represented by a portion, a b d x e, of Fig. 125, also in 
isometrical perspective. Of this figure, ab dx is the true theo- 
retical surface of the mould-board, from the edge, a b, of the share 
to the zero line, dx; ab ex is the sole; the curve, b p n m I, etc., 
is the line of transit of the slice, and the triangles, Vfl, 2'gr2, 
3'hd, 4V4, etc., are vertical planes, supposed to cut the solid thus 
reduced in the divisions 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., to the height of the line 
of transit, as in the analytical sections of the mould-boards. 

The surface, now completed, can only raise the slice to the per- 
pendicular position; and, to complete the operation, we have to 
carry the twisted wedge back till it shall place the slice at the 
an^le of 45 deg. To do this we have to extend the original 
prism, or suppose it to have been at first sufficiently elongated 
toward d d\ Fig. 125, Plate IV., and to superimpose upon its flat 
side the portion d d' ux, or a d u of Fig. 126. The part d d' u x is 
now to be worked off into a part of a new cylindrical surface, 
whose radius is y d or y u, Fig. 126, and upon this surface the line 
du, Fig. 125, is to be drawn tangent to the curve bd at d. A 
continuation of the divisions of three inches is to be made upon 
the line d d', and the parallels a' q', b' r' and a d' continued on 
the cylindrical surfaces. Whatever portion of the superimposed 
piece, a d' u, may be found to fall within the small arc, a t, Fig. 
126, is to be cut away, forming a small portion of an interior 
cylinder concentric to the point y, which, being done, the remain- 
ing portions of the superimposed piece are to be cut away to the 
• lotted lines d x, a y, b z, u u' of Fig. 125, or, what is the same 
thing,' to the lines d a, a' a, b' t and u t of Fig. 126, forming tan- 
gents to the curves at a t, and which will complete the surface 
of the twisted wedge through its entire length, and to the height 
of the line of transit, producing what I conceive to be the true 
theoretical surface of the mould-board. 

Fig. 126, Plate IV, exhibits distinctly in the quadrants o b d, 
the inequality of the angles of ascent for the slice, where the 
aadii a //, <t >/, " m'. Ac represent the ascents to the correspond- 



History of the Plow. 55 

ing divisions of length in the transit of the slice through the curve 
b d u, which represents the periphery of the cylindrical surfaces 
at the line of transit. The parts of the figure lying above that 
line, represent those that must be superimposed above the quacl- 
rantal portion of the cylinder, to complete the upper regions of 
the mould-board; these parts acting merely as a preventive against 
the overfall of the soil into the waste of the plow, are of less 
importance as to form, than those just described, but are quite 
necessary in the practice of plowing. The parallelogram y d 
exhibits the relation in which the furrow slice stands to this form 
of mould-board, when the slice has been raised to the perpendi- 
cular, and y u in its ultimate position. 

Although I hold this to be the true theoretical form, it is not 
in this state fit to be employed as a practical mould-board ; but 
the steps to render it so are very simple. The broad shovel- 
mouth, a b, Fig. 125, would meet with obstructions too numerous 
to admit for a moment of its adoption in practice ; but we have 
only to remove the right hand portion of the edge, a b, in the 
direction b q, making the breadth, q m, six and one-half or seven 
inches broad; that portion also contained in T r 3 is to be cut 
away, leaving m r about four inches broad ; b q r m will then 
represent the share ; the mould-board being thus of the prolonged 
form in the fore part. And, though this form has no peculiar 
advantage over the truncated, in respect to working, it is better 
adapted to admit of the body being constructed of malleable 
iron, a practice which, though more expensive, is certainly the 
most preferable, by reason of its greater durability, and being 
less liable to fracture through the effect of shocks when stones ©r 
other obstructions are encountered. 

Besides the removal of these parts of the theoretical mould- 
board, other slight modifications are admissible. When the parts 
have been cut away as described, the edge, b q, of the share will 
be found too thick for a cutting edge. If brought to a proper 
thickness by removing the parts below, making the edge to coin- 
cide with the curved surface, the share so prepared would have 
the character that belongs to the cresting plows. The lower edge 
of the mould-board, from r to 2, would be also rather high, and 
would present unnecessary resistance to the lower side of the 
slice ; both parts, therefore, require to be reduced. The surface 
of the feather, b q, is to be sloped down till it becomes straight 
between the points b and q, q not being more than one-quarter of 



56 Report on Trials of Plows. 

of an inch above the plane of the sole, as at the dotted lines, mz, 
in Fig. 126. The lower edge of the mould-board is also to be 
rounded off as shown by the dotted lines along the lower edge 
from h to o, Fig. 128. To prevent the abrasion of the edge of 
the slice in passing over the mould-board, it will also be expedient 
to make the lines from d to u, in Fig. 126, fall in from below the 
line of transit upward, as shown in the dotted lines at d' a' b' u." 

In order to complete this subject for the benefit of plow-makers, 
we' give Mr. Stephens' method of forming the pattern of a mould- 
board, practically, as we have already given them theoretically. 

The Mould-board Pattern. — In this operation the quadrant of 
a cylinder, upon which the principle is founded, may or may not 
be prepared. If it is to be employed, then the first process is 
exactly as before described in reference to the quadrant, Fig. 123. 
Plate IV, which must be formed and lined as there described ; but 
the same process may be pursued by lines alone, without the 
intervention of a solid, and in the following manner : Having 
described the quadrant of a circle, as a b c, Fig. 123, of ten inches 
radius, construct the diagram, Fig. 124, as before directed, the 
entire length, e b, being thirty inches, divided into equal parts of 
three inches each. The arc. b d, is then to be drawn through the 
points b, p, n, m, which points, instead of being a transfer, as 
before described, from the quadrant, may be drawn directly by a 
beam compass touching the three leading points, b m d, as before, 
which will intersect all the divisions, converting them into ordi- 
nates, If, 2g, Sh, etc., to the curve, b d. The lengths of these 
ordinates from the base line, e b, are now to be carefully trans- 
ferred to the quadrant of the circle, b d, of Fig. 126, and set off 
in t lie ei reunite re nee thereof; thus, the point b, in Fig. 126, cor- 
responds to the termination, b, of the base line in Fig. 121. The 
firsl ordinate, q p, is to be set off on the quadrant from b to p ; 
the second ordinate, 8ra, is sel off from b ton; the third, 7m, 
from b to ///. and 80 on through the entire quadrant of the circle. 
'.'he radii, a b, a p, a n, etc., being now drawn, Avill furnish the 
successive angles of elevation, with the sole plane tor each division 
of the length throughout the quadrant. 

Ell applying these to tin- mould-board, it is to be observed (hat 
ihe first three radii belong to the share, it" it is a prolonged mould- 
board; or the firsl five, if it he truncated. The quadrant, Fig. 
12ii, with its radii being thus completely drawn out at full size 
upon a board, produce Ihe line h <t to >/. and on //, as a centre 



History of the Plow. 



57 



with a radius of seven inches, describe the arc a t, and concentric 
to it the arc d u. At an angle of 45 degrees, draw t u a tangent 
to the arc a t, and the point of intersection of this tangent with 
the arc will fix the extreme point, u, of the mould-board at the 
height of the line of transit, which point will be nineteen inches 
from the land side plane, b g, and twelve inches above the plane 
of the sole or base line, y b. From d lay off divisions of equal 
parts on the arc, d u, each equal to four and a half inches — the 
diagonal of a square of three inches — which completes the lines 
for the fabrication of the pattern. 

The next step in the operation is that of building a block, out 
of which the pattern is to be shaped. Provide a deal-board of 
three and a half feet, or thereabouts, in length, with a breadth of 
ten inches ; have it dressed of a uniform thickness, and at least 
one end and edge straight and right angled, as seen at a b c in 

Fig. 52, and a b, fig. 126, Plate 
IV, forming a basement to the 
block, a being the right angle, 
and the continuation of the board 
being hid from view under the 
superimposed block. Let the 
edge, a c, of the board be marked 
off in equal divisions of three 
inches, agreeing exactly with those 
of the diagram, Fig. 124, mark- 
ing the divisions with letters or 
numerals corresponding to the radii of the quadrant, Fig. 126, 
the end, a b, of the board corresponding to the radius, m, of the 
quadrant, and to the ordinate, 7m, of the diagram. Provide, also, 
a suit-stock or bevel of the form represented by d e f. the stock, 
d e, being a straight bar with a head-piece at e fixed at right angles 
to the stock, and into this blade, a f, is to be jointed in such a 
manner that when the blade and stock are set parallel to each 
other they shall just receive the thickness of the basement board 
between them, the length of the blade being equal to the breadth 
of the slice. Five or more pieces of well seasoned, clean, three- 
inch Memel or yellow pine deal are now to be prepared, each 
about thirty inches in length and from six to four inches in breadth. 
Set the level to the angle, b a m, Fig. 126, and, applying it at the 
end of the board, as in Fig. 52, it will point out the position in 
which the first block must be placed on the board in order that it 




Fig. 52. 



58 Report on Trials of Plows. 

may fill the lines of the pattern. The farther end of the block 
being set in like manner to face within the lines, it is to be firmly 
attached to the board by screw nails. The second block, k i, is 
to be joined to the first by the ordinary method of glueing, being 
set in the same manner as the first, to fill the lines of the pattern 
at both ends, and this requires its being set obliquely to the first. 
The third block, I m, is set in like manner, and so on with n o 
and p q. The setting of the different blocks will be much facili- 
tated by having the ends, g i I n p, cut off to the plane of the 
land side, that is, to coincide vertically with the land side edge 
of the board, and by keeping in view that the terminal line lies 
at an angle of 45 degrees. 

The block being thus prepared, the process of working it off is 
plain and easily performed in this way : Having set the bevel at 
the angle, b a m, Fig. 126, which answers to the end, a b, of the 
block, the bevel is applied as in the figure, and the surplus wood 
is cut away to a short distance within the end, a b, of the board, 
until the blade of the bevel lies evenly upon the surface, and the 
kneed head-piece touching the edge of the board. Set the bevel 
now at the angle, b a I, and, applying it at the first division on 
the edge of the board, cut away the surplus wood with a gouge 
or other tool, in a line parallel to the end of the board or at right 
angles to its edge, until the edge of the blade, af lies evenly on 
the surface, and the head of the stock touch the edge of the board 
as before. Repeating this operation at each successive division 
with the bevel, setting it to the corresponding angle up to the 
zero or vertical line, and we have a series of leading lines or 
draughts, each occupying its true position on the surface of the 
mould-board to the height of the line of transit. By continuing 
these lines, each in the direction already given it, until they 
terminate in the breast or in the upper edge of the pattern, we 
have a corresponding scries of points now determined in the 
breast and upper edge; and by removing the surplus wood still 
remaining in the spaces between the lines, and reducing the 
surface to coincide with them, we have the finished surface from 
the neck of the share up to zero. 

To complete the after portion of the pattern, we have to form ,-i 
temporary bevel with a curved blade adapted to the small are. 
a t, fig. 12(>, Plate IV, which blade is prolonged in a tangent, t it, 
at the angle of 45 degrees. With the guidance of this bevel, its 
stock being still applied to the board as in Fig. L29, cut away all 



History of the Plow. 59 

the wood that occurs to interrupt it behind the zero, until it 
applies everywhere behind that line without obstruction. At the 
third division beyond the zero the pattern may be cut off in a 
right vertical, though this is not imperative, as the mould-board 
may be made considerably longer or a little shorter, without at 
all affecting its operation. At whatever distance in length its 
terminal edge may be fixed, that portion of the line of transit 
which lies between the zero and the terminus must leave the 
original curve, h m d, Fig. 123, at a tangent, and it will reach the 
terminus as such, or it will gradually fall into a re-entry curve, 
according as the terminus is fixed, nearer to or farther from the 
zero line, the terminus of the line of transit being always nine- 
teen inches distant from the land side plane. That portion of the 
surface which now remains unfinished between the arcs, a t and 
d n, Fig. ]26, is to be worked off in tangents, applied vertically 
to the arc, a t, and terminating in that part of the line of transit 
that lies between d and u. Such portions of the interior cylin- 
drical surface as may have been formed under the application of 
the temporary bevel to the arc, a t, are now also to be cut away 
by a line passing through the junction of the tangents, t a\ t b\ t n, 
with the cylindrical arc, a t, forming a curved termination in the 
lower part, behind, as seen in Fig. 127, which completes the 
surface as proposed. The breast curve and the form of the 
upper edge will now have assumed their proper curvature, and 
there only remains to have the whole pattern reduced to its due 
thicknesses. This, in the fore part, is usually about one-half inch, 
increasing backward below to about one inch, and the whole 
becoming gradually thinner toward the top edge, where it may 
be three-sixteenths of an inch. 

We may now sum up the modern history of the plow in Scot- 
land by saying that all the plows now in use there are formed on 
one of the three models which we have described, viz. : Small's, 
Lanarkshire and Stephens'. The Berwickshire has the lines of 
the mould-board concave, and the western Fifeshire very sharply 
convex, but the differences are too unimportant to make a minute 
description necessary. 

We now proceed to relate the more modern history of the 
plow in England. We have already stated that the Eotherham 
plow was the basis of improvement in England, as well as in 
Scotland, although its progress in the latter kingdom was exceed- 
ingly slow, for reasons which we have previously given. 



60 Report on Trials of Plows. 

The wooden plows formerly used were very liable to get out 
of order by warping, cracking, etc., and continually needed 
repairs, which were very expensive, and the going backward and 
forward to the plow-wright, who often was several miles distant, 
was a very serious tax upon the time of the farmer, particularly 
in a climate as variable as that of Great Britain, often causing 
him to lose the proper time for seeding. To remedy this difficulty 
in some degree, plows were made of wrought iron, as we have 
seen in Brand's plow, Fig. 17 ; but this material being soft and 
liable to bend, as well as to wear away rapidly, it became very 
desirable to find a substitute which should be more rigid and less 
liable to abrasion. We accordingly learn from Mr. J. Allen Ran- 
som's valuable work upon farm implements, that his grandfather, 
Mr. Robert Ransom, of Ipswich, who seems to have been almost 
as successful in making improvements in agricultural implements 
as Sir Richard Arkwright was in cotton machinery, obtained a 
patent for making plow shares of cast iron in the year 1785. Mr. 
J. A. Ransom very justly remarks that this circumstance is well 
worthy of notice, not only as a very important and successful im- 
provement in the part in question, but as the means of drawing the 
attention of that individual and ruany others to further improve- 
ments in the plow, which were soon after carried into effect. 

Another long step in the improvement of the plow was taken 
by the same gentleman in the year 1803, when he obtained a 
patent for case-hardening or chilling shares. When plain oast 
iron shares were used a little while, it was found that the sharp 
edge of the feather wore aw;^ so that it, as well as the point, 
became thick and blunt. This, as can be easily seen, greatly 
impaired its efficiency; it lost its hold upon the ground; the 
weeds were passed over uncut, and a great increase of power was 
required to operate it. Mr. Ransom chilled the under side from 
one-sixteenth to one-eighth in thickness. This part wears much 
more slowly than the upper part. The upper surface grinds 
away while the lower part is unaffected, and heuce the edge is 
always sharp. The land side of the point was likewise chilled 
in the same manner, and with the like results. When the share 
was finally worn out, the farmer himself could replace it a! a 
l rilling expense, without the necessity of resorting to a black- 
smith or any other mechanic, and the shape of the iron is always 
uniform, which it could not lie when the point and feather were 
tempered by the blacksmith, guided 1>\ his eve alone. 



History of the Plow. 



61 




Figs. 53 (a and b) show shares which have been broken, and 
the white lines at the edge show 
the chilled parts. 

This new process proved of 
such practical utility that it was jlflillB 

soon extended to other parts. A I 

Suffolk farmer invented for his 
own use a cast iron sole-shoe, 
which was also chilled at the bot- -Fig. 53.— {a) 

torn. It was provided with mortises to receive the tenons of the 
wooden parts, and soon got into general use. It is represented at 

Fig. 54. The old difficulty, 
however, still remained, not- 
withstanding these great im- 
provements. So long as any 
portion of the plow was 
made by the blacksmith, 
' changes would be made in 

the curves and other parts upon which its useful action depended. 





Fig. 5&. 



and there was a consequent uncertainty on the part of purchasers 
whether the plows would perform good work. As improvements 




Fig. 55. 



62 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



were made in moulding and casting, it became possible to make 
the whole plow of cast iron, so that when a farmer once had a 
plow that exactly suited him, it could be accurately and certainly 
reproduced, and multiplied to any extent, at a very small cost. 
The next step, after the adoption of the sole shoe, was to make 
the entire frame of iron. They were so constructed that all 
parts — the handles, beams and shares, the sole, the mould-board 
and the braces — could be screwed upon with a much greater firm- 
ness and much greater capability of adjustment than had ever 
been attained before. Sketches of three of these frames are 
given in Fig. 55. 

The following figure (56) will show how the mould-board and 
share was attached to the frame. 




Fig. 56. 

The plow made entirely of cast iron was introduced about the 
year 1800, and by 1810 was in very common use. The changes 
made in the plow for the next quarter of a century were very 
slight, and these were mainly in the adaptation of the mould- 
board to different kinds of soil, that is to say, concave vertical 
lines were adopted in loose sandy soils ; straight lines in medium 
mellow soils, and convex lines in hard clay and other stiff soils. 

About the year 1840, Rev. W. L. Rham developed the doctrine 
thai the transve?'8e lines of the plow should be straight ; and so 
tar as we know, he was the first one who taught this rule in 
Europe, though he had been anticipated many years in this 
country. 

Let ABC, Fig. 57, represent the breadth of the furrow. On 
this diameter describe the semicircle, A 4 C, and divide it into 



Plate V. 

PLOWS 
Howard's Plow. 

2*j- of the full size. 




Inehes22 I> 6 3 o X 

bn±Q±5lbg± ' 



J 1Mb 



3.tif 



Ransome's Plow. 
2*j of the full size. 




ELEVATION. 




History of the Plow. 



63 



equal parts, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., and draw the radii, B 1, B2, B3, etc., 
draw the parallel lines, 1 1', 2 2', 3 3', etc. Draw the share, 
dfg e, and the lines d e, the neck of the share, and 3' 6', making 
the distance between them equal to the length of the mould- 
board. Draw the diagonals 6' d, 5' V, 4' 2' and 3 3'. These lines 
will represent the twist of the mould-board, the zero being at h. 

d 




Fig. 57.- 

Mr. Eham recommends that all plows should be thus made, 
with straight transverse lines, but that the vertical lines should 
be altered to suit different soils. So that, for medium mellow 
soils, the vertical lines should be straight ; for stiff clays, convex, 
and for sandy and loose soils, concave ; the degree of convexity 
to be proportioned to the stiffness of the clay, and the degree of 
concavity to be proportioned to the looseness of the sand. 

Fig. 58 represents these various sections. A B represents the 
section contiguous to the neck of the share ; C B in the middle 
of its length, and D B at the heel. No. 2 represents the convex 
lines for stiff soils, and No. 3 the concave lines for loose soils. 




The tendency of plow-makers since the publication of Mr. 
Rham's views has been to approximate their mould-boards to the 
lines indicated by him. 

We give on Plate V figures accurately representing the plows 
of Mr. Howard and Mr. Ransom, which may be taken as repre- 
senting the utmost perfection to which the art of plow-making 
has reached in England up to the present time. 

As the plan of Mr. Rham has been substantially adopted by 
some of the most eminent plow-makers in England, we will give 



64 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



it in fuller detail. It will be observed that Mr. Hham's mould 
board is curved in the form of the spiral thread of a screw, such 
as would be generated by a line moved 
uniformly forward in a direction at right 
angles to its length, while it revolved 
uniformly round one of its extremities. 
This surface is thus generated mechanic- 
ally — Fig. 59. Take a rectangular paral- 
lelogram, A B C D, of the width of nine 
inches, or as wide as the intended furrow, 
and of length equal to four times the 
width. Bisect B C in E, and D C in F ; at 
F raise a perpendicular to the plane of 
the rectangle at F, and make it equal to 
C E ; join E G, and produce it to K, 
making K G=E G join K D. Draw from 
every point in C D lines at right angles to 
C D, meeting the line E K in different 
points, these lines will form the required 
surface. The line K D will be found in- 
clined 45 degrees to the horizon at the 
angle K D H, which is the inclination at 
which the furrow slice is most advantage- 
ously laid. To those who are not familiar 
with solid geometry, these lines may be 
easily exhibited by means of a wire in- 
F/ff. 59. serted at E and bent at a. right angle at K, 

inserting the bent portion into the board, A B C D, Fig. GO, at 
D, lying in the direction E K, Figs. 59 and 60. Care must be 
taken that G F be equal to C E, and H perpendicular to the 
board. It is evident that, as the plow moves on, a particle at E 
will slide along the line E K, become at G perpendicular to the 
plane of the sole, and at K be at an angle of 45 degrees with that 
A b 





Fig. 00. 



History of the Plow. 65 

line. If the slice were a solid substance, this line, E K, would be 
all that is required to turn it in its proper position ; but as the 
soil is generally loose, and would crumble in pieces, a support 
must be given to it by a surface at least as wide as the slice. 
This surface is generated by drawing lines from different points 
of D C at right angles to the line and meeting the line K E. 



CHAPTER IV. 

AMERICAN PLOWS. 
HISTORY OF THE PLOW— Continued. 

We now turn to the history of the plow in this country. 
Until the beginning of the present century the plows used were 
most deplorable implements, fabricated by the most careless and 
unintelligent mechanics, scarcely any two being made alike. We 
cannot find, and we have never seen or heard of, a single plow 
having been made on the principle laid down by Mr. Jefferson in 
his day, except those made by himself; in fact the existence of 
his method was hardly known in this country until within quite 
a recent period, although it was well known and much talked of 
in Europe. 

Mr. A. B. Allen, in the Transactions of the New York State 
Agricultural Society for 1856, thus describes the primitive 
methods of the plow-makers in this country in the early part 
of the present century : 

"A winding tree was cut down, and a mould-board hewed from 
it, with the grain of the timber running so nearly along its shape 
as it could well be obtained. On to this mould-board, to prevent 
its wearing out too rapidly, were nailed the blade of an old hoe, 
thin straps of iron, or worn-out horse shoes. The land side was 
of wood, its base and sides shod with thin plates of iron. The 
share was of iron, with a hardened steel point. The coulter was 
tolerably well made of iron, steel edged, and locked into the 
share nearly as it does in the improved lock coulter plow of the 
present day. The beam was usually a straight stick. The handles, 
like the mould-board, split from the crooked trunk of a tree, or 
as often cut from its branches ; the crooked roots of the white 
ash were the most favorite timber for plow handles in the northern 
ft 



66 Report on Trials of Plows. 

States. The beam was set at any pitch that fancy might dictate, 
with the handles fastened on almost at right angles with it, thus 
leaving the plowman little control over his implement, which did 
its work in a very slow and most imperfect maimer." 

It is curious, as well as humiliating, to see how little advance 
had been made in the fabrication of an implement which lies con- 
fessedly at the root of all human civilization. As we have seen, 
the original plow was a forked stick, with natural crooks which 
adapted it to the purpose ; and after a lapse of three thousand 
years, the same idea as stated by Mr. Allen was still uppermost 
in the minds of plow-makers, the last differing mainly from the 
first in being protected from wear by nailing on old hoes, horse 
shoes, etc. 

It is, however, instructive and interesting to observe that there 
was, after all, a certain blind instinct in the American farmers' 
minds which led them somewhat in the right direction. They 
invariably selected trees for mould-boards which had been acci- 
dentally twisted in their early growth, and thus, without knowing 
or suspecting it, they were approximating to a helicordal curved 
surface. 

The first American who set himself to work to improve the 
plows in common use, after Mr. Jefferson, was a farmer by the 
name of Newbold, residing in Burlington, N. J., who made the 
first cast iron plow ever made in America. He used it successfully 
himself, but so great was the antipathy to new-fangled notions 
that no one would imitate his example, and very few would even 
try his implement. 

As this plow was the first that was made of cast iron in this 
country, and thus inaugurated a new era in the history of the 
implement, it is from this circumstance invested with so much 
interest that Ave give his specification in full, viz. : 

"The subscriber, Charles Newbold, of Burlington county and the State of Xew 
Jersey, has invented an improvement in the art of plough making, as follows, viz.: 
The plough to be (excepting the handles and beam) of solid cast iron, consisting 
of a liar, sheath and mould plate. The sheath serves a double purpose of coulter 
and sheath, and the mould plate serves for share and mould board, that is, to cut 
and turn the furrow ! 

•'The forms to be varied, retaining the Same general principles, to meet the 
various uses, as well as inclinations, of those who use them. 

"Philadelphia, 17th June, 17'.»7. 

"CHARLES NEWBOLD. 

'. " ',,,''"' \ Witnesses present at the signing." 

"I Ml Ml I RACY, ^ ' o o 



History of the Plow. 67 

The letters patent were signed by John Adams, President, and 
Timothy Pickering, Secretary of State, and their legality was 
certified to by Charles Lee, Attorney General, on the 26th of 
June, 1797. Fig. 61 is a correct delineation of this plow. 




Charles Newbold, the inventor of the first cast iron plow ever 
made in America, was born in the township of Chesterfield, Bur- 
lington county. New Jersey, about the year 1780, and in 1804, 
married Hope, the daughter of David Sands, who lived a few 
miles south of Newburgh, N. Y. He was endowed with a large 
share of energy and genius, which developed themselves in the 
formation of so many schemes and contrivances, which succeeded 
one another so rapidly in his teeming brain, that he had no time 
to carry any one of them into successful operation. He had a 
grand scheme for founding three cities on the Hudson river, to be 
called Faith, Hope and Charity. These were to be the centres, 
respectively, of trades, manufactures and commerce. They were 
to be connected together by the best possible roads, as well as 
water communication, and from the central city a grand road 
across the continent, similar to the Cumberland road, was to con- 
nect the Hudson river with the Pacific ocean. From this central 
trunk road numerous lateral roads were to be made to diverge 
in every direction throughout the entire continent, so that the 
whole trade and commerce of the country should finally centre 
in Faith, Hope and Charity. His cotemporaries thought these 
notions exceedingly visionary, and some of them thought they 
afforded unmistakable indications of insanity ; but a road already 
exists in an unbroken line, at this day, from Newburgh to the base 
of the Rocky mountains, and in a few years more, though Faith, 
Hope and Charity are yet unbuilt, his grand idea of a connection 
between their sites and the Pacific ocean, by a railroad over the 
whole route, with lateral communications over the whole United 



68 Report on Trials of Plows. 

States, have been fully realized. He who in that early clay, with 
the eye of faith, could discern this vast system of internal 
improvement as a present reality, could have been no common 
man. Some time after his marriage he removed to Cornwall, 
N. Y., where his wife had formerly resided, and remaiued there 
until his death. 

His plow, consisting of share, land side, sheath and mould- 
board, was all cast in one piece by Benjamin Jones, Esq., at the 
Hanover furnace, Burlington county, some time between the years 
1790 and 1796. This plow was put into operation in a young 
orchard belonging to Gen. John Black ; the plowman soon after- 
wards broke the point, and it was never used afterwards. It is 
still in existence, and is the property of John Black, Esq. (a son 
of Gen. Black), of Mount Holly, N. J.* 

Mr. Newbold, although he had made a most valuable improve- 
ment, was unsuccessful in persuading the farmers of his region to 
adopt it. He spent upwards of $30,000 in perfecting and intro- 
ducing his plow, and then abandoned the business in despair, as 
the farmers had in some way imbibed the strange notion that the 
cast iron plow poisoned the land, injured its fertility, and pro- 
moted the growth of weeds. Towards the latter part of his 
operations he substituted ^wrought iron share for the cast iron, but 
it did not overcome the prejudices which had been engendered, 
and the farmers still adhered to the miserable bull plows that were 
in vogue, which took much more power and did not work as well. 

There are traces of the use of a east iron share still earlier than 
Mr. Newbold's. In the year 179-4, it appears by the first volume 
of the Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Agricul- 
ture, Arts and Manufactures, that "Col. John Smith produced 
the model of a plow share, according to which it was proposed to 
have that utensil made of cast iron, in order to save expense in 
husbandly, and come cheaper to farmers than those in common 
use, forged from wrought iron ; and Mr. Smith and Judge Hobart 
were appointed to get several cast for trial." At the next meet- 
ing, Col. Smith reported that the cast iron share exceeded his 
most sanguine expectations. "It is cast in the form of a Dutch 
share (probably the Rotherham share), after the best model (hat 
could be procured by the society, with this exception, that the 
edge is not complete, and not so wide by about three inches as 
it will be when finished with the false edge which is made of 

* This original plow has been presented by -Mr. Blaok to the State Agricultural Society 
of New York, for its Museum, in Albany. 



History of the Plow. 69 

wrought iron or steel and fastened on with rivets." He informs 
the society that they may be had, either with or without the false 
edge, of Mr. Peter T. Curtenius, in New York. The Col. Smith 
above named was afterward Gen. Smith, and was the proprietor 
of St. George's manor in the county of Suffolk. He was an 
eminent and extensive farmer, and was one of the original corpo- 
rators of the old Agricultural Society of New York. 

The next plow patented was by John Denver, June 12th, 1804. 
He was a Marylander, and some old people in that State still 
remember such a plow, but we can obtain little definite informa- 
tion respecting it ; it probably never came into very general use. 
There is neither specification, drawing or model of it now in the 
Patent Office. 

The next patent was granted to Hezekiah Harris, of Kentucky, 
February 24th, 1804. We can find no memorial of this plow 
either in the Patent Office or elsewhere. 

A patent was granted to David Peacock, of New Jersey, April 
1st, 1807. There is no record of this now in the Patent Office 
at Washington, all the old records having been destroyed by fire ; 
but we learn on very good authority that it was made of cast iron, 
and resembled Newbold's plow, except that it was cast in three 
separate pieces, while Newbold's was cast in a single piece. 
Newbold sued him for an infringement, but it was finally settled 
by the payment to Newbold of $1,500. He was very much dis- 
satisfied with his agents, who made this arrangement, and always 
thought that he had been betrayed by them. David Peacock 
took out another patent in 1822. There were some improvements 
made in other parts of the plow, but the chief feature was the 
famous lock coulter which it is believed he was the first to intro- 
duce (Fig. 90). The plows made by Peacock were very exten- 
sively used throughout the country, and many of them were to 
be found in use on farms in this State and in New Jersey and 
Pennsylvania as late as the year 1850. 

The earliest . recognition of the importance of straight trans- 
verse lines in the mould-board that we have met with is contained 
in the following letter from the celebrated Timothy Pickering, who 
was a most excellent farmer, as well as an eminent statesman. It 
was addressed to Dr. Alex. Coventry, and is dated Salem, June 
3d, 1820: 

" My public employments in the war of our Revolution having 
caused me to take my family to Philadelphia, I remained there 



70 Report on Trials of Plows. 

after its termination. During four years I lived in the country, 
and paid some attention to husbandry. One day when learning 
to hold a plow (a good Pennsyh r ania plow of that day), the soil, 
rich and moist enough to be adhesive, I observed that the earth 
tilled the hollow of the mould-board, and assumed a straight line 
from its fore end, near the point of the share, to its upper pro- 
jecting hind corner, and that it maintained that same straight 
line. It then struck me that this straight line should, exist in 
every mould-board and direct its curvature. Four or five years 
afterwards I returned to Philadelphia, having- been again called 
to public life. And, at a subsequent period, visiting Mr. Bordley, 
the Vice President of the Philadelphia Agricultural Society (of 
which I was a member, and its secretary at its first formation in 
1785), he handed me a small model of a mould-board which Mr. 
Jefferson had left with him. At the first glance I saw the straight 
line before mentioned governed its form, and asking Mr. Bordlej's 
daughter, then at her needle, for a piece of thread, I stretched it 
from the left lower fore part of the mould-board to its right 
upper overhanging fore corner, and found it in a .straight line, 
touching the mould-board in its whole length. 'Here,' said I to 
Mr. Bordley, ' is the principle on which this mould-board is 
formed.'" * * * * " I have given this detail to explain the 
opinion I now express, that the straight line therein described is 
essential to the form of the mould-board of the least resistance. 
Around this line the curvature is to be formed ; and placing the 
lower edge or bottom of the mould-board on a level floor, if 
another straight line be laid transversely on the fore end or point 
of the mould-board, and moved regularly backward on its face 
in a plane perpendicular to the horizon, it will touch the mould- 
board in its whole breadth, throughout its whole length, provided 
the curvature be correct. In a word, the curvature will be a 
portion of a spiral screw. Take a large screw auger for an exem- 
plification. No earth can be left on such a mould-board; for 
every succeeding portion of earth which the plow raises pushes 
off that which is on the transverse straight line behind it ; and 
the face of the mould-board consists — is made up (mathemat- 
ically speaking) — of an infinite number of such transverse straight 
lines. 

" One more observation: The essential straight line indicates the 
slope of the wedge on which the furrow slice rises until it reaches 
thai point ill the line :it which the transverse line is perpendicu- 



History of the Plow. 



71 



lar, after passing which the gradual overhanging of the mould- 
board pushes the furrow slice (supposing it to rest on its lower 
edge as a hinge) beyond the centre of gravity, and at length 
completely subverts it; or, in farmers' language, lays it upon its 
back. The angle which the striglit line should form with the sole 
of the plow is another material point to be discovered by experi- 
ments. 

"In adjusting this mould-board to the plow, another point is 
to be determined — the extent of the angle which the essential 
striglit line should form with the bar of the share or land side 
of the plow. The smaller this angle the less the resistance at 
entering the earth; but if the angle were to be very small, then 
the plow must have great length to obtain a proper breadth of 
furrow; and such great length would proportionally increase the 
quantity of friction. Hence the conclusion, that keeping both 
these points in view, repeated experiments must decide where 
lies the just medium of breadth, of angle, and length of mould- 
board." 

The lines running from the front of the plow towards the back 
are now usually transverse lines, but Mr. Pickering evidently 
applies this term to the lines running from the sole to the top of 
the plow. 

The next patent granted was to Hezekiah Harris, of Kentucky, 








Fig. 62. 
on the 24th of February, 1808, of which no record remains in the 
patent office, and of which we can learn nothing whatever. The 
next was to Richard B. Chenoweth, of Maryland, a drawing of 



72 Report on Trials of Plows. 

which is given in Fig. 62, and the following extract from the 
specification will give the idea of the inventor: 

"There is attached to the upper side of the mould-board, 
which is of cast iron, a share which in its shape differs from any 
other now in practice, it being fastened on the upper side of the 
mould-board with screws, the point doubling over, but running 
even with the land side, which is also made of cast iron, and 
leaving a hollow under the mould-board so that small stones may 
pass without interruption. The share is made of wrought iron 
with a steel edge weighing from four to eight pounds." 

John Klay, of Maryland, received a patent for a plow dated 
January 11th, 1812. 

Roswell Tousley, of Scipio, New York, received a plow patent 
on the same day; this man was subsequently a partner of Jethro 
Woods. 

John Seltz, of Pennsylvania, received one February 8th, 1813. 

Matthew Patrick, of New York, had a plow patented on the 
2d day of January, 1813. 

Horace Pease, of Scipio, New York, received a patent for a 
plow August 28th, 1813. 

Jethro Wood, of Scipio, New York, had a patent for a plow 
granted July 1st, 1814. He did not attach much value to this 
patent, and never attempted to introduce it extensively, as we are 
informed by his daughters. 

The next patents granted for plows were to John Swan, of 
Scipio, New York, on the 5th day of July, 1814; to J. Morgan 
and J. B. Harris, October 11th, 1814; to David Peacock, of New 
Jersey, May 29th, 1817. 

Gideon Davis, of Maryland, received a patent for a plow May 
26th, 1818. This plow is interesting, as it is the first attempt 
since Jefferson's day to construct the mould-board on mathemati- 
cal principles. The drawings will be found on Plate VI, and the 
following specification will show the ideas which the inventor 
BQUght to embody: 

"The great desideratum to be attained in the box share or 
shallow plow, is that it he so shaped and constructed as to detach 
the furrow slice from the solid ground, raise it up and turn it 
over, in the neatest and most uniform and effectual manner, with 
the hast possible labor, both to the plowman and the team, com- 
bining at the same time the advantages of being simple in its 
struct urc, strong and durable, easy to keep in repair, and cheap. 



Plate VI. 

DAVIS' PLOWS. 




J 



History of the Plow. 73 

The mode of using, it is desirable, should be such as will cause the 
least trouble and inconvenience to the plowman. 

"With a view to combine as far as practicable these various 
objects, I begin by making the mould-board, land side, and stand- 
ard (or width for the beam to rest on), all of cast iron, and in a 
solid piece; this is clone in the manner that Charles Newbold, of 
New Jersey, made his improved plow, patented in the year 1797, 
but with several alterations and improvements hereinafter par- 
ticularly specified. 

" First — Of the shape of the moulding part, or what is com 
monly called the face of the mould-board, the general principle 
heretofore concurred in by all scientific men who have turned 
their attention to this subject, is that as the furrow slice is de- 
tached from the solid ground, at a straight line, parallel to the 
surface, at such depth as may be required, that it should be 
raised up and turned over, so as to retain, as far as possible, the 
same flat shape. In order to accommodate the face of the mould- 
board to this idea of raising the furrow slice up and turning it 
over, it has been so constructed as to form straight lines length- 
wise, either horizontal or a little inclined, and also to correspond 
with another set of straight lines at right angles with the land 
side, or nearly so, commencing at the point touching the edge 
of the share and lower edge of the mould-board. These last 
mentioned straight lines, as they recede from the point of the 
commencement, gradually change from a horizontal to a perpen- 
dicular direction, and even pass beyond the perpendicular so far 
as to give the proper over-jet behind. It has been thought that 
mould- boards so constructed would fit and embrace every part of 
the furrow slice in the operation of turning it over, not observing 
that the furrow slice must necessarily assume a convex form on 
the under side during the operation by which it is raised up and 
turned over. 

" The truth is, however, that in raising and turning over the 
furrow slice it always acquires a convex form on the under side, 
or else it is broken into pieces and thrown over; as might there- 
fore be anticipated, it will be found that all those mould-boards 
which are constructed on this principle wear through, in the 
operation of plowing, about midway, whilst the upper and lower 
edges are scarcely rubbed. It also necessarily results that plows 
of this description work hard and are of heavy draught, because 
the mould-board not being adapted to the convex form which the 



74 Report on Trials of Plows. 

furrow slice is disposed to assume, lifts the furrow slice at a sin- 
gle point, and that in the middle instead of being equally applied 
throughout the entire operation. 

'In order to meet and remedy the inconveniences arising from 
this form of structure, I form my mould-board into a different 
shape, and instead of working the moulding part or face of the 
mould-board to straight lines, my improvement is to work it to 
circular or sphere lines. By repeated experiments I have ascer- 
tained that in one direction, viz.: from a, Plate VI, fig. 4, inclin- 
ing to the back part, d, the circle or segment of the mould-board, 
to which the mould-board is wrought, should have about three 
times the radius of the smaller segments represented by the lines 
lettered c c, &c, the former being thirty-six inches, the latter 
twelve inches. In order then to shape the moulding part, or the 
face of the mould-board, having obtained a suitable block, I begin 
by laying off the bottom (Fig. 3), and (Fig. 4) by circular or 
spheric lines at a a a. If I intend to construct a plow of a 
proper size to cut and turn a twelve inch furrow, I strike this 
segment of a circle of thirty-six inches radius (Fig. 1), and at 
twenty -four inches back from the point c at right angles with the 
land side and twelve inches from the land side; the circle will 
intersect the angle line; this circle is extended out from the land 
side; I then work the block to fit the same segment, inclined 
from a (Fig. 4) at the point of the share, to a at a perpendicular 
raised twelve inches from the horizon, with the circle extended 
in toward the land side; then having wrought to the shape of 
these two lines, I apply the circular part of the smaller segment 
(Fig. 2) and work the face of the mould-board, until that segment 
will have an equal bearing on all parts, corresponding with the 
cross lines c c a, &c, which if produced would all terminate in 
a point at d, which is about thirty-six inches from the perpendic- 
ular, where the line a a crosses the line d b; this being worked 
off uniformly, forms a section of an oxydromic or spiral curve, 
and when applied to practice is found to fit or embrace every 
part of the furrow slice far more than any other shaped plow. 
The plow may be made larger or smaller, suited to deep or shal- 
low plowing, by enlarging or diminishing the radii of the seg- 
ments whieh it is wrought by. Believing that this mode of 
shaping the moulding part or face of the mould-board is an origi- 
nal invention of my own, not heretofore known or used, and that 
it is a most important improvement in the shape of the plow, I 



History of the Plow. 75 

claim the exclusive privilege of making, using and vending the 
same. 

" Second — Shape of the throat and hind part of the mould- 
board: The shape of the throat is exhibited in the accompanying 
drawing, fig. 4, fig. 5, Plate VI. I construct this part of my 
plow with a gentle curve from the top of the share entirely up 
to the beam, which, at a suitable height for a plow designed to 
turn a furrow slice of about twelve inches in width, say about 
sixteen inches, will incline forward as it comes up to the beam to 
form a birth for it to rest on in an easy circular form. I dress it 
oft" also round as it ascends from the share, making it broader 
and broader as it approaches the beam. The object of this 
peculiar shape is to prevent brambles, long grass, &c, from lap- 
ping so short as they would do if the front of the throat were 
sharp, and the inclination forward at the upper part of the throat 
forms a curve with the under side of the beam, so as to prevent 
anything in plowing to be jammed under the beam — the pres- 
sure below naturally forces the incumbrance up and forward, 
when it faces over and the plow cleans itself. This I consider 
an improvement of great value in plowing in clover, long manure 
and the like. The head part of the mould-board, Figs. 3 and 4, 
f, I dress off in a gentle curve from the end or wing of the share 
up to the hind corner of the mould-board. This shape I have 
ascertained to answer every purpose in turning over the furrow 
slice, and as it does not come down to the bottom of the furrow 
the plow works with much less friction, is lighter, cheaper and 
handsomer. 

" Believing these shapes for the throat or breast, and the hind 
part of the mould-board not to have been known or practiced 
before my application of it, and that they constitute valuable 
improvements in the construction of the plow, I claim the exclu- 
sive right to use and dispose of them. 

" Third — The structure of the land side with the mould-board 
and standard, or the fore and top part of the mould-board: 
Charles Newbold made his mould-board, land side and stand- 
ard of one piece, and of cast iron. In connecting his land side 
to the mould-board, he made it nearly square and stout to give it 
strength. I make my land side thin and broad, g, Fig. 5, which 
gives more strength vertically, without so much weight. This 
form also makes it a guard, which prevents sods, dirt, &c, from 
working in and clogging that part of the plow. In order then 



76 Report on Trials of Plows. 

to give additional strength to the land side sidewise, and to con- 
nect it at a proper angle with the mould-board, I make a rib, h, 
Fig. 3, on the land side, about midway between the top and bot- 
tom, say about two and a half inches from the bottom. This rib 
is made broad where it joins the mould-board at i, and tapers as 
it goes back to the birth for the handle to fasten on, where it ter- 
minates at i, Fig. 3, where I make a projection or jog, which 
cannot be represented in the drawing, to raise about half an inch 
for the end of the handle to rest against. This rest, or jog, sus- 
tains the pressure of the handle endwise, so that the screw bolt 
is only required to confine it to the side. C. Xewbold made the 
standard of his plow to pass up through a mortise in the beam; 
mine extends only up to the beam; the beam is fastened on it 
with a strong iron screw bolt, which may be made either to pass 
up through the top of the standard in the front part of it and 
through the beam vertically, j, Fig. 5, or to pass through the beam 
in an inclined direction, and containing the same inclination 
through the top of the standard, having on the inside a birth for 
the nut to work on, J, Fig. 4. There are plows in which the 
beam is fastened on the top of the standard with two bolts. The 
improvement which I claim to have invented consists, therefore, 
only in these particular modes of connection. The advantage of 
it consists in this — that the fastenings being made by a single 
bolt upon which the beam can turn, it enables me to adjust the 
landing of the plow by a simple operation in altering the position 
of the end of the beam, where it is united to the handle. This 
will be more particularly described when I speak of the stocking 
of the plow. 

"There have been, also, land sides heretofore constructed which 
were made thin and broad, but supported in a different manner. 
My improvement, therefore, consists only in the mode of making 
the rib, the projection or jog in the inside of the land side, the 
form of the top of the standard or the fore and top part of the 
mould-board, which, being made to extend forward under the 
beam, equalizes the bearing of the beam. Thus a smaller piece 
of wood will be more sufficient to form a beam than if the fasten- 
ings to the handle and standard are brought nearer to each other. 

"Fourth — The shoe: Charles Newbold made a bar of wrought 
iron which he caused to extend back from the share to the end of 
the land side, beloW it, and fastened to it with a screw boll pass- 
ing np through the shoe and land si<!e. 



History of tee Plow. 77 

" Stephens, of New York, applied his shoe on the bottom of the 
land side of the plow, and fastened with a small screw bolt pass- 
ing through both. Shoes constructed in this manner will only 
answer the purpose of protecting the bottom of the land side. 
The side, however, is equally exposed, and in time will wear 
entirely off. To obviate this inconvenience, I make a groove or 
countersink in the side and lower edge of the land side of my 
plow, which forms a birth for the shoe, and admits of the thick- 
ness, without any inconvenience, I make from its projecting out, 
E B, Figs. 3 and 5 ; the shoe extends round under the bottom of 
the land side and fastens on with one or more screw bolts. 

" The improvement consists in so constructing and applying the 
shoe that it protects both the sides and the bottom of the land 
side. It may- be made of wrought or cast iron, or steel. 

"Fifth — New mode of making, applying and using the share 
of the plow, whether formed of wrought or cast iron: If I apply 
the wrought iron share, I make it in the usual way by weld- 
ing the wing on the land side (see Fig. 6), and fasten it to 
the cast iron part of the land side with a small screw bolt, w, 
Fig. 5. Then I fasten it to the mould-board by means of a pro- 
jection made on the front and lower part of the mould-board, 
with an inclination forward, forming a dovetail or hook which I 
extend through the share. (See o, Fig. 6.) This mode will hold 
on the share very firmly, but as it is liable, being made of cast 
iron, to break off, in order to obviate this danger, I fasten the 
share to the mould-board with a strong screw bolt, having the 
head made to fit a tapering hole made in the mould-board, and 
passing down through the wing of the share, p, Fig. 6, and drawn 
up tight with a screw nut. If it be a right-handed plow, this 
should be a left-handed screw, and if a left-hand plow, then a 
right-handed screw. This is somewhat the manner in which 
David Peacock, of New Jersey, fastened the share on his plow, 
patented in the year 1807, but with this difference: he put two 
screw bolts and a false coulter through the wing of his share ; 
therefore made it stationary, and without its being made fast to 
the cast iron part of the land side at all. Bnt, in my mode of 
fastening the share on, by putting a piece of wood or leather 
between the wrought and cast iron land sides at n, Fig. 5, the 
point of the share may be somewhat adjusted, and the bar always 
regulated to suit the shoe of the plow. The point and edge of 
the share is likewise of a different shape from any that have here- 



78 Report on Trials of Plows. 

tofore been made to my knowledge. Having remarked that the 
point of the share is always disposed to wear round, I make the 
point round at first. I also make it about twice as broad as usual, 
and of course much thinner. The edge of the share is likewise 
made rather concave or hollow, this being the shape to which it 
naturally wears. In consequence of this they wear much more 
uniformly, will last longer and be less expensive. 

"It is also a fact that the broad share or coulter point will 
enter or strike into the ground much better than those of the 
ordinary construction, and, being much thinner, will retain their 
edge and work much longer without requiring repair. 

" In using the wrought iron share, the point or fore and lower 
part of the mould-board, especially if the point of the share is 
suffered to wear off very short, is liable to wear away. To obviate 
this, I make a plate of wrought iron of suitable thickness, say 
one-fourth of an inch, Fig. 7, and shape it to fit, or nearly fit, on 
the front and lower part of the mould-board, and fasten it on with 
the head of the main screw bolt, with which the share is fastened 
on, taking care to fit the lower edge down snug to the top of the 
share. This plate may be put on when needed, and renewed ;is 
required. 

" If I apply a cast iron share, I make a birth or countersink on 
the lower and front part of the mould-board (see q, Fig. 4, and r, 
Fig. 3), on which I put my cast iron share, in the manner in which 
Richard B. Chenowith, of Baltimore, fitted the share on his plow, 
patented in the year 1808, but with the following alterations and 
improvements: He employed two small screw bolts to fasten his 
share on ; and to enable him to set the edge of the share deeper 
as it wore off, he made the holes in his mould-board of consider- 
able length, and in such form that the share could, when required, 
be moved down or with the point and edge forward. Thus the 
point and edge was extended, but the desired effect was not pro- 
duced. The point and edge would naturally wear to a bevel on 
the under side, and it was owing to this circumstance that it would 
not penetrate into the ground; not because it wanted more length. 
In my plow the share is fastened on with one screw bolt ; more 
may be used, but are unnecessary. Having the point made round, 
broad and much thinner than usual, with the edge rather hollow, 
it is thus accommodated to the shape into which it has a tendency 
to wear. When it is first put on, a small strip of wood or leather 
is inserted between the edge of the mould-board and the share. 



History of the Plow. 79 

(See Fig. 3.) This strip may be about a fourth of an inch thick 
at or near the point of the mould-board, tapering to an edge at 
the other end, and about half or three-fourths of an inch wide. 
This strip should be made of such thickness as to set the point of 
the share level with the after part of the plow; and as the sub- 
stance of it is somewhat elastic, the tendency is to diminish the 
sharpness of the stroke, which would be produced if the castings 
were to come together. The principal advantage, however, of 
this method of affixing the share is that it affords an opportunity 
of adjusting the point and edge of the share, so that when the 
point and edge of the share have worn to a level on the under 
side, the piece of wood may be taken out and another inserted of 
about half the thickness, and then, again, if required, the whole 
may be taken out. By this operation the point or edge is let 
down as much as is necessary each time. It, at the same time, 
inclines the point of the share to the land, which is as necessary 
as to set it deeper. When worn as long as it can be in this man- 
ner, strips of wood may be inserted between the upper edge of 
the share and the mould-board, which will adjust it still more, as 
was recommended by Richard B. Chenoweth in the use of his 
plow. 

" In making my cast iron shares and shoes, if I use a metal which 
is not too high, I have one-half of the mould made of cast iron 
and the other part of sand, in the usual way. The shares and 
shoes are thus rendered more uniform and less troublesome to 
mould, and consequently cheaper. 

"In respect, therefore, to the share, whether of wrought or 
cast iron, I claim the shape of the point and edge as of my inven- 
tion, together with the modes of fastening the shares on the plow 
and adjusting them, the modes of moulding and casting shares 
and other shoes, either wholly in cast iron moulds or partly of 
cast iron and the residue of sand. 

" Sixth — The manner of stocking or using the plow, heretofore 
the object of all constructors, has been, so far as I am acquainted, 
to make the beam immovably fast to the handle and to the stand- 
ard, whatever may have been the particular mode of fastening 
adopted. In stocking my plow the handle is made fast to the 
land side at h, Fig. 5; I then fit the beam on the top of the 
standard and on the inside or outside of the handle, so as to lay 
solid on one and fast against the other, /"and t, Figs. 4 and 5. 
The beam is there fastened on the standard with a strong; screw 



80 Report on Trials of Plows. 

bolt, either passing up through the front of the standard and the 
beam, as at j, Fig. 5, or I pass a screw bolt down through both 
the beam and the top part of the standard, and fasten the neck 
of the screw on the inside of the mould-board, atj, Fig. 4. 

" Either of these modes will permit the beam to move on the 
top of the standard in the manner of a swivel, so as to turn the 
fore end of the beam to the right or left at pleasure, which I 
consider an object of importance in the construction of a plow. 
The hind end of the beam is then fastened to the inside or out- 
side of the handle, iv, Figs. 4 and 5. The other handle is fastened 
to the mould-board with two small screw bolts, and the two han- 
dles connected by two rounds u u, Figs, 4 and 5. Thus framed, 
if it be wished to set a horse plow to work, after three horses 
abreast, I fit a block of wood in between the handle and the end 
of the beam of about two inches thick. (See x, Fig. 5.) It then 
is necessary to put a brace from the screw bolt that fastens the 
beam to the handle and fasten it to the handle above with a small 
screw bolt, Fig. 5. Thus constructed, the plowman can raise the 
end of the beam by putting a bit of leather or wood between the 
top of the standard and the beam; if, on the contrary, he wishes 
to lower it, he can do so by diminishing the thicknesss of the 
block under the beam, or he may raise or lower the end of the 
beam where it rests against the handle. He may give the plow 
more or less land by adding to or diminishing the block between 
the handle and the end of the beam, or by loosening the upper 
screw that fastens the handle to the mould-board at z, and driving 
a wedge between the mould-board or the handle more land will 
be given, and be reversed. Thus the plow may be readily 
adjusted as convenience may require; and should the wood spring 
it can be set right without difficulty or delay. 

"The improvement, therefore, which I claim to have invented 
in the stocking of the plow consists in enabling the plowman 
thus to adjust the stock at his pleasure, the introduction of the 
blocks between the beam and the standard and between the beam 
and the handle, the use of the wedge between the mould-board 
and the handle, and the particular modes of fastening the beam 
on the top of the standard and the side of the handle for the pur- 
pose of adjusting the plow so as to give more or less land or depth. 

"Seventh — Of the coulter: If the locked coulter be applied, it 
is put in a rib on the point of the wrought iron share, much in 
the usual form, and passed through a mortise in the beam in the 



History of the Plow. 81 

mode usually adopted. But having satisfied myself by experi- 
ments that it requires an increase of twenty-two per cent power 
of draught more to urge the plow along, with such a coulter, than 
with a sword coulter properly fitted to it, my attention was 
directed principally to the latter. 

"This I apply in a manner different from any heretofore used. 
Instead of putting it through a mortise in the beam, I apply my 
coulter to the side of the beam. (See y, Figs. 4 and 5.) My mode 
of dohi£ it is as follows: Holes are made through the coulter- 
shank, and a strong screw bolt passed through the beam and 
coulter ; a strong strap of iron is fitted on the screw-bolt outside 
of the coulter, with a hook which is turned back of the coulter 
and tapped on the front of the throat of the plow. Thus fitted, 
if the coulter rests solidly against the standard and fair with the 
beam, when drawn tight to it with the screw, it cuts to great 
advantage. To operate more beneficially, the edge of the coulter 
should stand about five inches in front of the throat and about 
one inch to land. 

"Lastly — The mode of using the plow: The ordinary mode of 
using the plow when drawn by horses or mules is to attach the 
team to the plow by means of double and single-trees, coupled 
with what is commonly called clips and open rings. A serious 
objection to this mode is, that the single-trees, being attached 
in this manner, are at liberty to dangle about, so that they occasion- 
ally are caught in the ground and turned over, the chains become 
entangled in the legs of the animals, thus occasioning frequently 
much trouble and sometimes serious injury. 

" My improvement consists in the application of the stiff double 
and single-trees (see Fig. 8), which are constructed by making 
the double-trees in two bars, so that the single-trees work between 
them. Thus, all the play is admitted which is needed, and the 
inconvenience pointed out entirely avoided. The mode in which 
the double-tree is attached to the plow is by means of a clevis 
which opens in the bow (see a a, Fig. 8), which forms two 
blocks, admitting of being easily attached to or detached from 
the plow, perfectly safe, and by which the team can be placed 
farther from or nearer to the plow, quietly and without trouble. 

" Date of patent, October 1st, 1825. 

" GIDEON DAVIS. 
" William Elliott, 



-A,.,.. Mcfamu, y Witnesses." 

6 



82 Report on Trials of Plows. 

We believe that Mr. Davis was the first to dispense with the 
perforation and consequently the weakening of the beam, in order 
to insert the coulter. His plan of attaching it to the side was 
imperfect as compared with modern methods, but it was a step in 
the right direction. 

The inventors of plows now multiply so rapidly that we shall 
cease to enumerate all the patents that were granted, and confine 
ourselves to those which involve new ideas, or those which have 
been remarkably popular. Zadock Harris, of Washington county, 
in the State of New York, received a patent on the 17th day of 
March, 1819, for an improvement in the plow, a figure of which 
is oriven. 




Fig. 63 



The following extracts from the specification will make the 
drawing intelligible: 

"This plow is different from all other plows, inasmuch as the 
land side i«s composed of three plates which are fixed over each 
other, and the lower or under part of the plow is composed of 
two plates, Avith other pieces combined and connected, as here- 
after described. 

" The first land side plate and the under plate are cast together. 
each in their proper direction or position, which is nearly at right 
angles. 

" The lower part of the land side is so formed as to be of double 
the thickness of the upper part, so that the upper part may 
receive the cutter which fits the sunken part and rests on the pro- 
jecting thickness which forms an angle of about twelve degrees 
rising towards the back part of the plow. 

"At the upper end of the said angular line there is a groove 
or cavity with a number of indents for the purpose of receiving 



History of the Plow. 83 

the hooked part of the cutter, by which it may be extended at 
pleasure when the wearing of the cutter requires it. 

" The cutter is a plate of steeled iron, formed to the shape of 
the plow in front and of a thickness so as to fill up the sunken 
part before described ; the under side of the upper part of the 
cutter extends in a narrow form having a hook at the end, which 
bends downwards and catches in the indents before mentioned; 
when the last mentioned plate or cutter is in its place it causes the 
surface of the land side to be flush and even. 

" Over the above described plates is placed another plate which 
may be called the shelter plate, as it receives all the wear of the 
land side; it extends the whole length of the plow, and covers 
the under structure; the front part partakes of the shape of the 
cutter and recedes a little from it; it is fastened either by screws 
or bolts, which make the whole land side firm and secure. 

" The plate of the under side of the plow, which is cast with 
the first plate of the land side, has on its upper surface an 
indented groove and projects in front of the plow, and forms 
what is called a nose; this bar, as it wears in plowing, may be 
extended and turned at pleasure. On the right hand side of the 
above mentioned groove there is a rising ratchet or toothed edge, 
the indents of which prevent the under cutter from shifting its 
situation when in the act of plowing. 

"The under cutter is formed of a proper shape to suit the 
under part of the plow, and is made either of wrought iron, 
steeled, or entirely of iron ; the inner side is bent downwards for 
the purpose of catching in the ratchets or teeth before mentioned, 
when wanted to be brought forward, where it wears in plowing. 
Towards the inner side of said cutter there is a long perfora- 
tion for the purpose of admitting through it the shapes rising 
from the cast plate, which fastens the cutter by a key. 

"The mould-board is a separate piece, and made of cast iron, 
having proper staples or bolts in their proper situation for the 
purpose of fixing it by keys or otherwise ; or it may be fixed by 
screws. 

"This new construction of a plow may be adapted to any plow 
already in use, and the cutters may be made either of steel, 
wrought iron or cast iron." 

What is called the "under plate," in the specification, is a sort 
of shelf extending across the fore part of the plow from the land 
side plate to the mould-board ; it is about one and a half inches' 



84 Report on Trials of Plows. 

above the sole of the land side, and two and a half inches on the 
mould-board side, so that it slopes towards the land side and 
towards the point. A flange is cast on each side in which the 
bar runs which forms the point. The other parts of the plow 
are described with sufficient clearness in the specification. 

This is the first attempt that we have been able to find to meet 
a want which had been long and which is still felt, of guarding 
against the rapid wearing away of the point of the plow. This 
plow was once quite popular in Washington and the adjoining 
counties, but the difficulties in the use of the sliding point finally 
overcame the advantages arising from its use, and it finally dis- 
appeared from the market. The cases of the patent office are 
loaded with models showing a great variety of contrivances for 
an independent sliding and reversible point. The best of these 
contrivances was probably that of Prouty & Mears, of Boston : 
at all events, a greater number of these were sold, and they 
remained longer in use than any other ; but at present the agri- 
cultural community have almost all gone back to the point cast 
on the share. 

The use of two large wooden wheels running upon an axis, 
upon which the beam rested, is, as we have seen, a very old con- 
trivance ; but the single wheel, running by suitable attachments 
under the fore part of the wheel, is a modern contrivance of 
which it is generally believed Zadock Harris was the inventor. 
We are not sure of the fact, but the current of testimony is 
undoubtedly in his favor. He first attached one of these wheels 
to one of his own plows in the summer of the year 1820. It is 
certain that he introduced their use into the northern part of New 
York. 

On the first of September, 1819, Jethro Wood, of Soipio, X. Y.. 
took out a patent for his improved plow. This contained his 
most mature views upon the subject, and describes the pattern 
from which he never afterwards varied. Very large numbers of 
plows were made from patterns furnished by him, and even to 
I his da} r there arc many plows made in various parts of the 
country which depart very slightly from the principles estab- 
lished by him. If we are not mistaken, the plow known as the 
Livingston county is an example of this class. 

Jethro Wood was born, Ave believe, in Westchester county, 
\ew York, and in early life removed to Scipio, Cayuga county, 
in that part now known as the village of Aurora. There was a 



History of the Plow. 85 

laro-e number of the Society of Friends settled there, which 
probably induced him to select this location, he being a member 
of that society. There was much social visiting among them, 
and as they were all engaged in agricultural pursuits, this was 
naturally the leading subject of conversation at these gatherings. 
Roswell Towsley, Matthew Patrick, John Swanm, J. Morgan and 
J. B. Harris, all patentees of plows and all members of the Society 
of Friends, were also residents of Aurora. It was natural that 
daily association with men of this stamp should turn his mind to 
speculations upon the best form of the plow. He was not, as is 
generally supposed, a manufacturer of plows; we are assured 
upon the highest authority that he never made a plow in his life, 
he made the patterns only, and sold rights to manufacture them. 
Fig. 64 is an accurate copy of the figure drawn by him and depos- 
ited in the patent office as an illustration of his views of the best 
possible plan for the mould-board of a plow, and in connection 
with the specifications which we give in a somewhat abridged 
form will, we trust, convey a clear idea to the mind of the reader 
of his views upon the subject. 




Fig. 6&. 

First Specification. — The mould-board: This may be termed a 
plane curvilinear figure, not defined nor described in any of the 
elementary books of geometry or mathematics, but an idea may 
be conceived of it thus: The land side of the plow measuring 
from the point of the mould-board, is two feet two inches long. 
It is a straight lined surface from four to five and a half inches 
wide and half an inch thick. Of the twenty-six inches in length, 
eighteen inches belong to the part of the plow strictly called the 
land side, and eight inches to the mould-board. The part of the 
mould-board comprehended by this space of eight inches is very 



86 Report on Trials of Plows. 

important, affording weight and strength and substance to the 
plow, enabling it both to sustain the cutting edge for separating 
and elevating the soil in swards, and likewise the standard for 
connecting; the mould-board with the beam. The figure of the 
mould-board, as observed from the furrow side, is a sort of irregu- 
lar pentagon or five sided plane, though curved, and inclined in 
a peculiar manner. Its two lower sides, b a and a c, touch the 
ground, or are intended to do so, while the three other sides, c d, 
d e and e b, enter into the composition of the oblique or slanting 
mould-board overhanging behind, vertical, midway and projecting 
forward. The angle of the mould-board, as it departs from the 
foremost point of the land side, is about 42 deg., and the length 
of it, or in other words, the first side, a b, is eleven inches. The 
line of the next, or the second side, a c, is nearly but not exactly 
parallel with the before mentioned right lined land side, for it 
widens or diverges from the angle at which the first side, a b, 
and the second side, a c, join towards its posterior or hindermost 
point as much as one inch; hence the distance from the hinder- 
most point of the mould-board at the angle of the second and third 
sides, a c d, directly across to the land side, is one inch more than 
it is from the angle of the first and second sides directly across. 
The length of the second side, a c, is eight inches. The next 
side, or what is here denominated the third side, c d, leaves the 
ground or furrow in a slanting direction, backward, and with an 
overhanging curve exceeding the perpendicular outwards from 
thence to six inches, according to the size of the plow; the length 
of this third side is fourteen inches and one-half. The fourth 
side, d e, of the mould-board is horizontal, or nearly so; extend- 
ing from the uppermost point of the third side to the fore part 
or pitch is eighteen inches. The fifth or last side, e b, descends 
or slopes from the last mentioned mark, spot or pitch to the place 
of beginning. 

At the low and fore part of the mould-board, where it joins 
the land side, its length is thirteen inches. ###### 
The peculiar curve has been compared to a screw auger and to 
the prow of a ship, but neither of these similitudes conveys tin- 
fair and proper notion of the inventor. It has the following 
properties: A right line drawn by a chalked string, or by a 
straight ruler, diagonally or obliquely upwards and backwards 
from a point two and a half inches above the lip or extremity of 
the mould-board to the angle where the third and fourth sides 



History of the Plow. 87 

of the mould-board join, which is shown in the figure by the line 
b d, touches the surface the whole distance in an even and 
uniform application, and leaves no sinking or protuberance in any 
part of the distance, so, at a distance half way between the 
diagonal line just described and tli3 angle between the first and 
second sides, a line, f gr, drawn parallel to the diagonal line 
already mentioned will receive the chalked string as on a uniform 
and even surface. In like manner, if a point be taken one inch 
behind the angle connecting the second and third sides, and a 
perpendicular, h i, be raised upon it, that perpendicular will 
coincide with the vertical portion of the mould-board in that 
place ; or, in other words, if a plumb-line be let fall so as to 
reach a point one inch behind the last mentioned angle, then such 
plumb-line will hang parallel with the mould-board the whole 
way; the line of the mould-board there neither projecting nor 
receding, but being both a right line and a perpendicular line. 

Moreover, if a right line be drawn from a point on the just 
described perpendicular, one inch or thereabouts above the upper 
margin of the fourth side, and from the point to which the said 
perpendicular, if continued, would reach, if the said J. Wood 
repeats a right line, h I, be drawn downwards and forwards, not 
exactly parallel to the diagonal herein already described, but so 
diver«;ina; from the same that it is one inch more distant or 
farther apart at its termination on the fifth side of the mould- 
board than at its origin or place of beginning, such line so 
beginning, continued and ended is a right line parallel to the 
mould-board along its whole course and direction, and the space 
over which it passes has no inequality thereabout. 

If the mould-board be measured and proved vertically and 
obliquely by the saw in fashioning it, and by the rule in meeting 
it, and by the chalk line in determining it, the capital and dis- 
tinguishing character of right lines extending on, over and along 
the peculiar curve which his mould-board describes is always and 
inseparably present. 

Second Specification. — A cast iron standard for connecting the 
mould-board with the beam: It rises from the fore and upper 
part of the mould-board, being cast with it, and being a projection 
or continuation of the same from where the fourth and fifth sides 
meet. By a screw-bolt and nut properly adjusted above the top 
of the standard, and acting along its side, assisted, if need require, 
by a wedge for tightening or loosening, the beam may be raised 



88 Report on Trials of Plows. 

or lowered, and the mould-board, with its cutting edge, enabled 
to make a furrow of greater or smaller depth, as the plowman 
may desire ; and a latch and key fixed to the beam, and capable 
of being turned into notches and grooves or depressions on one 
edge or narrow side of the standard, serves to keep the beam 
from settling or descending. By means of the screw-bolts, wedges, 
catches and keys, with their appropriate notches, teeth and joggles, 
the plow may be deepened or shallowed most exactly. 

Third Specification — Claims the share. 

Fourth Specification — Claims securing the handles to the mould 
board and land side of the plow by means of notches, ears, loops 
or holders, cast with the land side and mould-board respectively, 
and serving to receive and contain the handles without the use of 
nuts and screws. 

Fifth Specification — Claims an improvement in the method of 
adjusting the cast iron land side to the cast iron mould-board. 
Their junction is after the manner of tenon and mortise — are 
joggled or dovetailed together in the casting operation — so as 
to make them hold fast. The fore end of the tenon is addition- 
ally secured by a cast projection from the inside of the mould- 
board, formed for its reception, and if any other tightening should 
be requisite, a wooden wedge well driven in will bind every part 
effectually without the assistance of screws. 

Finally — He claims the right of varying the dimensions and 
proportions of his plow, and of its several sections and parts. A 
disclaimer of certain portions of these claims was entered Feb- 
ruary 24th, 1838, and another disclaimer of certain other parts 
was entered on the 26th of May, 1838. 

There can be no doubt that this plow became very popular 
among farmers, and did more to drive out the wretched and 
clumsy plows of the olden time than any other which had then 
been invented. As late as the year 1820, a writer in the Rhode 
Island American says that, in most parts of Massachusetts, tin- 
Old Colony plow, with ten-foot beam and four-foot land side, 
were still in use; and the Sutton plows, which he says " are not 
lit lo plow any land that has sod on it; your furrows stand up 
like the ribs of a lean horse in the month of March. A lazy 
plowman may sit on the beam and count every bout of his day's 
work. Besides, the great objection to all these plows is that they 
do not perforin the work well, and that the expense is enormous for 
Lacksmith work. Six of these plows cosf me. on an average, last 



History of the Plow. 89 

year, five dollars each to keep the shares and coulters fi.t for work, 
and the wear of the other parts could uot be less than one dollar 
more — six dollars per year for each plow." It was the merit of 
Wood that he was more successful than any of his predecessors 
in driving out the cumbrous forms of the plow above described, 
and in forming a taste for lighter, better and cheaper implements. 

There were sold in the city of New York of Wood's plows, in 
the year 1817, 1,550; in the year 1818, 1,600; in the year 1819, 
3,600. We are informed that the sale largely exceeded the last 
mentioned number in the year 1820, but we cannot obtain the 
exact figures. These sales very largely exceeded the sale of any 
other plow then in existence. 

The first use that we have been able to ascertain that was made 
of the dynamometer in this State was at a trial of plows at Mount 
Vernon, New York, on the 20th of November, 1820. The width 
of the furrow was ten inches, but the depth is not stated. The 
power required by Henry Burden's plow was two and a half hun- 
dred weight; by George Woodward's, two and a half hundred 
weight; by John C. Stevens', three and three quarters hundred 
weight; by Jethro Wood's, three and a quarter hundred weight; 
and George Nixon's, three and a quarter hundred weight. 

It is alleged that Mr. Wood not only made no profits by his 
efforts to improve the plow, but that he actually lost large sums 
by his enterprise. His daughters have repeatedly applied to 
Congress and to the State Legislature for compensation, but hith- 
erto the application has been unheeded.* 

It is evident that Mr. Wood had no claim as the inventor of a 
cast iron plow, because he had been anticipated in this by New- 
bold and by several others. He could not claim the vertical 
straight lines, as he had been anticipated in these by Jefferson 
and Small. He could not claim the straight transverse line, d b, 
Fig. 64, for Col. Pickering had laid down this line long before 
him on theoretical grounds, and Jefferson, without any theory, 
had adopted it in practice. Mr. Wood's claim must therefore 
rest on the straight lines hf and b Z, which, we believe, fairly 
belong to him. 

In the year 1817, Mr. Edwin A. Stevens, of Hoboken, turned 
his attention to the plow. He had seen Newbold's plow, which 
first drew his attention to the subject. He made a mould-board 

* Since writing this Report, the N. Y. State Legislature appropriated two thousand 
dollars to the heirs of Mr. Wood. 



90 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



according to his ideas of what was needed for good plowing, and 
then plowed with it in some very sharp sand which he found on the 
shore of Hoboken. Noting the parts which did not at once pol- 
ish, he continued to change the twist of his mould-board, testing 
it constantly in this way until he found that it would polish all 
over and in all parts alike. He was then satisfied that he had the 
best plow that was attainable, and had his castings made from this 
pattern. But he did a much more important service to plow 
makers and farmers by inventing the process of cold chilling the 
base of the land side and the lower edge of the share, ignorant 
that the same thing had been done by Mr. Ransom, in England. 
This discovery constitutes an era in the progress of the plow in 
this country. Mr. Stevens had a very good dynamometer with 
which he made many experiments. 

In the year 1819, Henry Burden, since so celebrated as the 
inventor of cut spikes and horse shoe machinery, was a young 
man who had just arrived in this country from Scotland. He 
brought letters of introduction to the late Patroon, Gen. Stephen 
Van Rensselaer, who informed him that the plow in this country 
was still in a very imperfect condition, and advised him to turn 
his attention to its improvement. Mr. Burden acted on his 
advice, and constructed a plow which was a decided improve- 
ment upon all that had preceded it. It retained the principle of 




^ttj^gryi T ^ i 




lirnirniiii 



J 



Fiff. 65. 
vertical straight lines, but was quite unlike both Small's and 
Wilkie's. Many hundreds of them were sold, but as an opening 
was then made for Mr. Burden to enter into a much larger and 
more lucrative business, he relinquished the manufacture of 
plows. A cut of the implement is given in Fig. <>5. 



History of the Plow. 91 

Mr. Burden never made a plow which exactly conformed to 
his own ideas of the true form, being restrained by the preju- 
dices of the farmers, who required a longer and heavier plow 
than he deemed necessary. In all the trials that were made with 
this plow in competition with others, it was found to do better work 
with less power than any other. It was all of iron except the 
beam and handles; its use extended as far as Eichmond, in Vir- 
ginia. 

Many other plows were patented and many were made and 
sold without being patented, which varied very little in their 
general principles, but which founded their claims on public favor 
upon some very slight real or fancied improvements. As they 
soon went out of use it is unnecessary to describe them in detail. 
David Hitchcock, of New York, constructed a plow which he 
patented July 16, 1823, which was very popular, and continued 
to have a large sale for eight or ten years. These plows were of 
cast iron, and were much shorter than those now in use. They 
were better adapted for stubble than for sod plowing, though 
they did fair work on sod land — at least it was considered good 
in that day; they would not be as well approved at present. He 
made seven sizes. None of these plows would work well at a 
greater depth than five inches; the best Avork was done at four 
inches. It was largely used in New York, New Jersey and 
Canada, but most within a circle of forty miles radius, of which 
Worcester, Mass., was the centre. 

About this period the Hingham self-holding plow became very 
popular in Norfolk and Plymouth counties, in Massachusetts. It 
is the first attempt that has come to our knowledge of a deliberate 
eflbrt to make a self-holding plow, and for this reason we notice 
it, although it soon went out of use. It had an oblique beam, 
set strongly to laud, on the forward part of which a strong iron 
axle was bolted transversely and at right angles to it; on the left 
end a small wheel ran on the grass, and on the right end a larger 
wheel ran in the bottom of the furrow, which arrangement pre- 
vented it from canting to either side. On this axlo rises an arch, 
through which and through the axle a perpendicular shaft passes 
down near the bottom, having a drum, four inches in diameter and 
five inches long, which, rolling against the edge of the slice being 
cut, gauges its width. 

Mr. Joel Nourse, who is one of the most successful improvers 
of the plow of the present generation, having made and sold more 



92 Report on Trials of Plows. 

approved plows than any other man in America, if not in the 
world, learned the blacksmith's trade of his father. When he was 
nineteen years old, his father gave him his freedom, and entered 
into partnership with him in the year 1827. He forged the shares, 
coulters and other ironwork for the old fashioned wooden mould- 
board lock share plows of half a century ago. They employed 
an expert wheelwright to make the hard wood or oaken mould- 
boards and other wood work of these plows. This was in the 
town of Shrewsbury, Mass., six miles from Worcester. Mr. 
Nourse had a keen eye, a quick ear, and a dexterous hand. 
Always on the look-out for improvements, nothing in the action 
of the plow escaped his observation. The shop was a frequent 
resort of farmers, whose conversation naturally run much on the 
form and construction of the implements which were being man- 
ufactured under their eyes, and which, in the finished state, were 
all around them. Mr. Nourse carefully treasured up the hints 
which, from time to time, were dropped around him, endeavoring 
constantly to realize them in practice. In this way the real theory 
of the plow began gradually to dawn upon him, and the constant 
improvements which he introduced caused a rapidly increasing 
demand for his work. 

After his father's death he removed his establishment to Wor- 
cester, establishing himself there in a wider field of business 
Cast iron mould-boards were now getting into general use, though 
many farmers still were prejudiced against them, fearing that they 
would poison the land and increase the growth of weeds, and that 
they could not be relied on to stand the wear and tear of 
plowing. 

A foundry, which was the first and the only one in New Eng- 
land, had been fitted up at Hartford, Conn., expressly for the 
casting of these plows. Mr. Nourse was accustomed to go there 
in a two horse lumber wagon and buy a load of these castings 
,of the Jethro Wood and Hitchcock patterns, though there was 
much the greater proportion of the latter. These he would bring 
to Worcester, and having fitted them with beams, handles anil 
all other needful appliances, he sold them out in a finished form. 
Alter he had been some time established in Worcester, his busi- 
ness increased so much that he took in Air. Mason, his brother-in- 
law, as partner, in the year 1837, and soon after this they admitted 
Mr. Buggies, a brother of Judge Ruggles, of Maine, as a third 
partner, the uame (if the firm bring Ruggles, Nourse it Mason. 



History of the Plow. 93 

The new firm began, in the year 1840, with making a series of 
plows of different sizes, in strict accordance with Mr. Jefferson's 
principle; but these had but a very limited sale, as they were found 
to be very deficient in turning qualities, though they answered 
very well in stubble land. On the failure of this speculation, Mr. 
Nourse determined to remedy the difficulties which he found in 
existing plows, and apply to the new implements all the know- 
ledge and skill which he had acquired in the course of his expe- 
rience. In order to accomplish this he took a sheet of thick lead 
and patiently cut and hammered upon it until he brought it to a 
form which his judgment approved. 

The plow thus made was distinguished from others chiefly in 
two respects. First, by the greater length of mould-board, and 
second, by a nearer approach to straight lines in a longitudinal 
direction. The most of the plows of that day had extremely 
short mould-boards, and very few of them made any approach to 
straight lines in any direction. 

The Eagle plows, as compared with others in the market, were 
very long; they had more turn of mould-board at the rear end 
and a greater intensity of twist beyond the perpendicular. He 
was induced to pay particular attention to this point by the fail- 
ure of the Jefferson plow to invert the furrow slice, but he found 
the unexpected result that, in accomplishing this object, he effected 
at the same time a much more complete pulverization. 

The plow thus made from the lead pattern was the famous 
Eagle No. 2, and was finished in the year 1842. This plow retains 
its popularity to the present day, large numbers of them being 
still sold. 

Finding this to be a very good and serviceable plow, he next 
made Eagle No. 20, and rapidly thereafter various other sizes of 
the Eagle were made, which are still popular, and are shipped 
to every part of the world where our commerce reaches. 

From the year 1841 to 1861 the sale of these plows reached 
25,000 annually. 

The Eagle No. 2 was the only pattern of this series which was 
modeled in lead, the others being worked out of the wood with 
more or less theory based on the Eagle No. 2 as the ground 
work. 

In the year 1845", Governor Holbrook, of Vermont, began to 
aid Mr. Nourse in the planning of his plows. The latter had 
never been able to devise any system that would make the straight 



94 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



lines come accurately, both vertically as well as longitudinally, 
but Governor Holbrook devised a system by which, if the longi- 
tudinal lines are carefully laid down upon the pattern, the vertical 
lines will be certain to come right. 

In 1841 Mr. Nourse went to Boston and opened a large ware 
house, the style of the firm being the same in both places. Some 
years later other parties were admitted into the firm, under the 
style of Ruggles, Nourse, Mason & Co. The firm dissolved ir 
1855, all the old members except Mr. Nourse retiring, and a new 
firm was formed under the style of Nourse, Mason & Co. This 
firm, under its various changes, have sold more plows than any 
other in the United States. Fig 66 represents Eagle No. 2. 




Fig. 66. 

It is adapted to turn furrows from four to seven inches deep by 
twelve to fourteen inches wide. It was sometimes rigged with a 
common coulter for flat furrow plowing, and sometimes with a 
fin share, which adapts it for stubble plowing. 

We insert, as a contribution to the history of the plow, the 
following letter, from Mr. J. Dutcher, of Durham, N. Y., 
addressed to T. B. Wakeman, of New York: 

" The history of the plow in America, for the last forty years, 
has been so identified with that of my own, that in speaking of 
the plow I shall often have to say something about myself. I 
have always considered the plow the most useful and necessary 
implement that man has anything to do with, for this reason, I 
have bestowed upon it a great amount of time, labor and money. 

"As early as the } 7 ear 1806, when I was but a lad, I began to 
observe the difference in the constructions of the plow. At that 
time there were two kinds in use; one was called the Hog plow, 
which was said to be of Dutch origin, and another called the Bull 
plow, a Yankee invention. About this time I was learning the 
blacksmith trade, and had considerable to do with the plow, in 
constructing and making that part of it called the share. The 
Bull plow was the most esteemed; the other went out of use 



History of the Plow. 95 

about the year 1809 or '10. The cast plow, with wrought share, 
was known in and about Albany and adjoining counties. It is 
said to be Mr. Peacock's patent. But I considered all that I saw 
awkward and complicated, not simple enough for general use, but 
such as they were, I made and sold, like the other plow makers. 
In the year 1818 I heard that there was a new plow got up by 
Jethro Wood, and as the plow was rather my hobby, I took the 
trouble of going some twenty miles or more to see it. But when 
I come to see and examine it I found it to be complicated, weak 
and short-lived, yet it was different from those heretofore used — 
composed of three parts, a mould-board, land side and share. 
The mould-board was too short and too full on the external sur- 
face, and otherwise not properly shaped. Its entering wedge, or 
first part of the plow was too low and did not turn the furrow 
upon the edge in proportion to its entering the ground; in any- 
thing like quick speed the furrows were broken and deranged. 
" The land side was too narrow, long, and too weak, and did not 
protect the front edge or part of the mould-board on the land side 
and was too straight on the bottom; the share was far from being 
right; it left the shin of the plow all unprotected. In April, 
1819, I planned a plow which I supposed better adapted to do 
the work, as it afterwards proved itself to be. This plow I did 
not patent until 1832. Owing to the bad management in Wash- 
ington I lost my first $30. Not having my specification at hand, 
I will describe my improvement at that time, April 15, 1819. 
The mould-board was longer than any I had known. It was con- 
cave, with a corresponding shape. My land side I made twice as 
wide as Wood's — six to seven inches — and connected it to the 
mould-board by two wrought iron bolts. My share, in which 
consisted my greatest improvements, was constructed with a 
projecting piece called a shin share, so made as to supply with a 
new edge the shin of the plow as well as the wing. By this 
improvement, which has been adopted by all plow makers, the 
plow was more durable by one-half. The making of the land 
side concave on the bottom, although about half an inch from the 
point to the heel of the plow, was a very simple but an important 
improvement. The mould-board back of the wing of the share 
did not touch the ground by half an inch. The two improve- 
ments are quite necessary in rough and stony lands. Wherever 
my plow was introduced it superseded Mr. Wood's. The result 
was a prosecution l^Mr. Wood for an infringement of his patent. 



96 Report on Trials of Plows. 

He tried the second time, but was unsuccessful in both. About 
1821 persons in different parts of the country got up plows. 
Among them were Mr. Tice, of Washington county, Mr. Wright, 
of Saratoga, Mr. Chamberling, of Dutchess, and several others in 
different parts of the Union. They all laid aside theirs and 
adopted my improvements. I found it impossible to protect 
myself from these encroachments. Although my plow was made 
by all plowmakers, yet I did not consider it perfected. In 1823 
I ascertained that my land side was not as durable as it ought to 
be. By not extending all the way outside to the share, it left 
part of the mould-board exposed to wear and could not be 
renewed without getting an entire new mould-board. To remedy 
this I extended the land side outside of the mould-board up to 
the share. Finding that the wrought standard I then used was not 
sufficiently strong and cheap, I, in 1823, extended the body of my 
cast mould-board up to the beam, securing the beam to the body of 
the plow by a wrought bolt from the centre of the land side and 
mould-board perpendicular through the casting on which the 
beam rested, and through the beam, securing it with nut and 
screw. These have also been generally adopted. One more 
improvement remained to be made. In my letter to the Secre- 
tary of the American Institute, published in the journal of the 
Institute in 1837, I said that the mould-board, beam and handles 
of all the American plows were too short. I had been convinced 
of this years before. About 1838 I adopted these alterations. 
The plowmakers all followed suit. Owing to the imperfection 
of the patent law I had little encouragement to patent my last 
improvements. One clause in the patent law of 1836, which 
declared that a patented article must not bear sale at the time of 
the issue of the patent, and that there must not be more than one 
year from the date of the improvement before the patent is taken 
out, deprived me of my rights to my improvements. 

•' My large size plow that takes a furrow seven inches deep by 
fourteen wide, turns over six and three-quarter inches more 
at the top edge of the mould-board than at the bottom. From 
all that I have discovered in twenty-five years of observation and 
experimenting, I have not found one straight line that I could 
recommend on the running part of the plow. Although a plow 
will run well in its perpendicular position if the land side is 
straight, yet it will run better if it be even one-eighth of an inch 
concave towards the land. In no case should it be rounding:. 



History of the Plow. 97 

" There are other points that should be kept in view, particu- 
larly the line of draft, compromised in the height of the horses' 
breast, and of the end of the beam and its length. I know plow- 
makers who are unacquainted with this essential principle. When 
the land side is straight on the bottom from point to heel, the 
end of the beam must be one inch or more higher in order to 
make it enter, particularly in rough or hard land. This inch in 
the forward end of the beam places it thus much above the line 
of draught. In drawing, the team pulls the beam down, causing 
the plow to run on the point, and causing it to run unsteady, and, 
as farmers say, to root the ground. The half inch concave on the 
bottom will enable the plowmaker to fix the beam below the 
line of draught, which will make the plow run flat, and not ren- 
dering it liable to tip up behind when meeting with obstructions. 
This principle, as simple as it is, gave my plow a decided prefer- 
ence. The proper length of the beam is important, and often 
overlooked. Although smooth, mellow soil requires some varia- 
tion in the plow from that designed for hard and stony land, yet 
for land in general two or three inches in the beam makes great 
difference in the running, throwing the end out of the line of 
draught. The length that I have found as generally best for an 
half inch concave is two feet two inches. I place my plow on a 
straight place, then measure the perpendicular from the point of 
the plow to the beam; then from this point two feet two inches to 
the end of the beam. For hard ground, two feet, and for mellow 
soil, two feet four inches are the extreme lengths. 

"Owing to the ignorance and prejudice of farmers it has cost 
me more labor to introduce my plow than to make the improve- 
ments. These difficulties were aggravated by having my improve- 
ments pirated by almost every plowmaker in the country. The 
province of Congress is to give protection to the real inventor, 
not to convey his improvements to another. Every farmer has a 
right to his own field and its products; equally inalienable are the 
rights of inventors. 

" My long experience in the construction and great familiarity 
with the use of the plow have led me to comprise the excellencies 
of the plow in seven essential points — materials, strength, draught, 
expense of first construction, workmanship, yearly expenses and 
performance. A deficiency in one of these may make the plow 
comparatively worthless. 



98 



Report on Trials of Plows. 




" Mr. Wood lays it' down as a scientific principle that the lines 
of draught of the mould-board should be as shown in A; that is, 

beginning at the point of 
the share, draw a straight 
line to the upper edge to 
the mould-board behind, 
that the straight line should 
rest upon the external sur- 
face of the mould-board all 
A the way up to the upper 

edge of the mould-board behind. This, he says, is the line the 
furrow follows. Now I assert that this is not in accordance with 
the natural operations of the furrow as it rises and turns from its 
horizontal to its perpendicular and inclined position. Practical 
experience has shown me that the surface of the mould-board 
should be a curve as shown by a straight line drawn from the 
forward point on the lower side of the mould-board diagonally 
to the upper end. This line will be one inch above the surface 
in the middle. Lines drawn at right angles in this line will be 
one-quarter of an inch above the surface. The furrow will follow 
the curved lines indicated in cut B. 

"The time. and money 
I have expended on the 
plow are equivalent to 
$5,000. The advantages 
the public have derived 
can be estimated by hun- 
dreds of thousands, while 
my returns have not ex- 
ceeded $1,000. Plowmakers have paid to Jethro Wood sums that 
should have come to me, the real inventor of the improvements. 
This was done in consequence of improper laws passed by Con- 
gress in his favor. 

"In Mr. Jefferson's letter to Sir John Sinclair, in 1798, you 
will find Mr. Wood's mould-board described. In Ransom's His- 
tory of Agricultural Implements, Johnson's Encyclopedia of 
Agriculture, and in the English journals since 1800, you will see 
that Robert Ransom invented a cast iron share as early as 1785. 
He also invented the process of chilling the point of the share. 
A farmer in Suffolk, England, made, in 1790. east land sides. 
Mr. Newbold, of Orange county, in this State, made cast plows 




Plate VII 

McCORMICK'S PLOW. 





History of the Plow. 99 

as early as 1790, and patented the invention in 1797. The patent, 
which I have seen, was signed by the elder John Adams. The 
casting of this plow went up through the beam like that of J. 
Wood's. Mr. Peter T. Cnrtenius of this city had cast iron plows 
for sale in 1800. They were of three pieces — mould-board, land 
side and share. 

"In 1814, Mr. Wood obtained a patent, again in 1819, and by 
special act of Congress procured a renewal of fourteen years, 
making thirty-three years in all. He now seeks another renewal! 

"J. DUTCHER." 
McCormick's Plow. 

This plow was in great reputation and use. The only reason 
why we have not given a specification of it at large is, that having 
given Davis' and others at full length, it would take up too much 
room. There are, moreover, a great many points of resemblance 
between this and Davis'. A general reference, therefore, to the 
drawing of it is given in connection with the following extracts 
from the original specification itself, which show that the improve- 
ments consist chiefly in the following particulars, viz. (See Plate 
VII): 

First — In the shape of the bar and point, as well as the shoe 
or fender to be attached to a wrought or cast iron land side. 

Second — In the face of the mould-board, and the method in 
which it is wrought; the front edge of the mould-board; the curve 
or projection over toward the land side; the method of making 
the hole for the brace or bolt through the neck from the hind 
part, or a ketch without a hole through; also, the ketch at the 
bottom of the mould-board to fasten the share on; the concave 
groove for the handle, and one hole for a bolt to fasten it, and the 
method of hardening the front edge and wearing of the mould- 
board. 

Third — In the method of fastening the wrought share to the 
cast land side and mould-board by ketches and projections; the 
fender or shoe, the concave groove in the land side for the handle 
to fit it; the structure of the fore part of the mould-board, for 
the cast share, and self sharpening and advancing point, the brace 
bar for the bar to rest on, and the method of fastening the bar or 
point, and its position upon an inclined plane, and the shape of 
the share. 

Fourth — Putting the beam on the outside of the handle, the 
manner in which they are fitted together, and fastening them with 



100 Report on Trials of Plows. 

a staple and two screw nuts; the adjusting of the beam on the 
top of the neck of the mould-board and fastening it with one end 
of the brace or screw bolt, both coming from the hind part and 
through the neck of the mould-board, with one screw, and raising 
and lowering the beam at the handle. 

Fifth — In the shape of the sword and front edge of the 
coulter and the method of fastening with the stirrup. 

Fig. 1. A — Beam bolt. Fig. 2. A — Self sharpening point. 

B — Fastening by a staple. B — Share 

C — Mould-board. C — Shoe or fender. 

D — Share. D — Mould-board. 

E — Adjusting screw brace. E— Beam bolt, hooked at lower 

end. 
F — Fastening by a staple . 



CHAPTER V. 

HISTORY OF AMERICAN PLOWS— Continued. 

Mr. John Mears was born in 1795, and was brought up as a 
plowmaker. In 1831 he became acquainted with David Prouty, 
a practical farmer and country trader, with a mechanical turn of 
mind. Mr. Prouty called his attention to the Hitchcock plows, 
with which he had not previously been familiar. Finding them 
much better than any they had ever seen, David Prouty, his son 
Lorenzo and John Mears, formed a partnership for the purpose 
of making and selling these plows. The}' sold seven sizes of 
these, and at once found a very large demand for them. 

Mr. Mears had a very active mind, and applied himself assidu- 
ously to the study of the plow. He had not long been engaged 
in this line of observation before he perceived the irregularity 
of motion which was produced by the oblique insertion of the 
beam, and he was not long in reasoning out the centre draught 
principle which we have described in the chapter on "The Line 
of Draught in Plows," Chapter VIII. This has been one of the 
most important improvements made by American inventors of the 
plow, and is now almost universally adopted by all plowmakers. 

Their mould-board was formed by cutting a strip of sole leather 
to the width of the proposed furrow; one end of it was nailed to 



History of the Plow. 101 

a flat surface, and the remainder was twisted over precisely as a 
furrow would be. The wooden pattern was then cut so as to 
coincide with the surface of the twisted leather. Prouty & Mear's 
No. 5i and No. 30 were formed in this way. They became very 
celebrated, and large numbers of them were sold. The sales of 
this firm amounted to about five thousand annually, at an average 
price of eight dollars. Their self sharpening points were 
probably the best that were ever made. The first prize, at the 
great trial in Albany in the year 1850, was awarded to these 
plows. 

Messrs. Minor and Horton began to make what is known as 
the " Peekskill Plow " in the year 1835. Mr. Minor had been 
an employee in the establishment for nine years. The first plow 
patterns made at Peekskill were by James H. Conklin, while an 
apprentice with Levi Carpenter in 1823. They were known as 
L. C. plows, and had two points to the share, a few of which are 
still in use. The next was made by Stephen Gregory, which 
was known as the Gregory plow; these were made in 1826. 
The next were made bj the same J. H. Conklin, who had formed 
a copartnership with James Wiley; these were made in 1827, 
and were called the Wiley & Conklin plow. These suited the 
market well, and large numbers of them were sold of seven 
different sizes. About the same time Truman Minor, who was 
the superintendent of Seth Hait's foundry, made a set of patterns 
for four different kinds of plows. Shortly after this Mr. Hait 
died, when Frost Horton and Truman Minor formed a partnership 
as above stated, and having taken Mr. Hait's foundry, began the 
manufacture of the " Peekskill Plows," of nine different sizes. 
In the year 1855, Mr. Minor retired from the firm, and died in 
the year 1862. On his retirement the firm assumed the style of 
Horton, Depew & Sons, which continued to manufacture the same 
kind of plows until 1864, when they sold out the business to J. 
B. Brown and I. L. Paulding, who formed a stock company known 
as the Peekskill Plow Company. 

This company, since its first formation and under various names, 
have made patterns for about ninety different forms of the warped 
surface which Mr. Minor originally devised. They have, during 
that period, made about one million sets of castings, and it is 
estimated (though on unreliable data) that about half as many 
more have been made from patterns taken from these castings by 
others. 



102 Report on Trials of Plows. 

Mr. Minor made a semi-cylinder of the length of the proposed 
plow, and of the same diameter as the width of the proposed 
furrow; the cylindrical surface was divided in both directions by 
lines one inch apart. A line beginning at the left rear corner was 
traced diagonally through the corners of the squares to the right 
front corner; the line thus formed was applied from the point of 
the share to the rear upper wing of the mould-board, and the 
pattern was worked down until it accurately coincided with it; 
there is a series of straight Hues also in this plow running from 
front to rear. Such is the description of the principles of the 
Peekskill plow given us in the year 1850 by Mr. Minor. We 
wrote to Mr. Brown, of the Peekskill works, to know whether our 
recollections were correct. He replied as follows: "Your state- 
ment of the principles of Mr. Minor's plows expresses his ideas, 
as far as it goes, as well as they can be briefly expressed by words, 
but it seems to me to convey no idea of the helicoidal torsion 
which, being moderate, constitutes the ' easy lines' of Mr. Minor's 
plows." 

The Peekskill plows have transverse straight lines, as we have 
before stated. The first or lowest of these in the No. 21 plow 
makes an angle of 21 cleg, with the plane of the sole. The upper 
line is very nearly horizontal; the intermediate lines difler in the 
angle which they make with the plane of the sole by regular 
gradations; if they are produced backward they would" approxi- 
mate to the form of a fan, but they do not radiate from a common 
centre. The lines running from the bottom to the top of the 
plow also vary in the angles which they make with the vertical 
line which in this plow is situated about five inches in front of the 
extreme rear angle of the mould-board. The first of these lines 
forms an angle of about 40 deg. with the vertical, and they regu- 
larly increase as they approach the vertical. The length of this 
plow from the point to the extreme rear angle of the mould-board 
is thirty-five and a half inches; the length of feather fourteen and 
a half inches; distance from land side to the point of the feather, 
ten inches; length of land side twenty-seven inches; distance from 
sole to under side of the beam at the standard, fourteen inches. A 
figure of this plow is given in Transactions of the New York State 
Agricultural Society for 1850, page sixty-one. There can be no 
doubt of the great excellence of this plow; its chief defect is, 
that its curves are too regular, and therefore it fails in pulverizing 



History of the Plow. 103 

power; but its draft is very easy. It won the second prize in the 
great trial at Albany in 1850, in fallows and in stiff sods. 

It would be very improper to pass over the labors of the cele- 
brated Daniel Webster, in a report on the history of plows. He 
invented in the year 1836 or 1837, a plow for work twelve and 
fourteen inches deep, which is still in existence, the property of 
his life-long and highly esteemed friend, Peter Harvey. It is 
twelve feet long from the bridle to the tip of the handles; the 
land side is four feet long; the bar and share are forged together; 
the mould-board is of wood plated with straps of iron; breadth 
at the heel of the mould-board to land side, eighteen inches; 
the spread of the mould-board was twenty -seven inches; the 
lower edge of the beam was two feet four inches above the sole; 
width of share fifteen inches. 

The history of this plow is so admirably stated in a letter from 
Gov. Holbrook, of Vermont, that we give it in his words. " I 
have certainly been faulty in recollection, in that I have not before 
now, given you an account of what I personally know of the 
efforts of the late Daniel Webster, to improve the plow for deep 
thorough plowing. My memory was jogged in this regard by a 
question put to me in a letter received from a friend, yesterday, 
touching this matter; and, therefore, I now write to give you an 
account of Mr. Webster's great plow. 

" You doubtless know that Mr. Webster was passionately fond of 
farming and rural life, of farm stock, and especially large, sleek, 
superb oxen, of which he always kept several yokes (as we say in 
Yankee phrase) or pairs for the work of the farm at Marshfield. 
He not only himself raised the best of large, lusty steers, which 
were closely matched and trained to the yoke, but not unfrequently 
he bought working oxen when opportunities offered for securing 
those which were well matched, well trained, of large size and 
superior quality. 

(; In perfect accordance with his thoroughness in everything else, 
he believed in deep, thorough plowing, and that our farmers were 
quite too superficial in the tillage of the land. But at that early 
day there were no plows made that could turn a furrow of more 
than five or six inches deep. Therefore, he determined to make 
a plow himself that would give him the depth of furrow he desired 
m his farming, for a deeper furrow he must have, no matter, he 
said, if it was a foot deep. 

"Accordingly, some thirty years ago or more, he set himself at 



104 



Report on Trials of Plows. 




History of the Plow. 



105 




rv 

8 



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H-*ONNoCOtOO 
■ i— ( i— i CN i— i 



CO OJ so ci rj< 



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£ S^ S ® - 
PuPPffl e oo | 

O O O fe g M 
fcO bfi bC^ 2 t4- re 









r^-2,3 g rj S 

13 13 13 -g °? o 
C O O •* CD X! 

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106 Report on Trials of Plows. 

work to plan a Jarge plow, and employed a wheelwright to make 
the wooden mould-board agreeably to his directions and under his 
daily personal supervision, and then a blacksmith was employed 
to cover the mould-board with straps of thin iron in the usual way 
of strapping wood mould-boards in those days, and to set the 
wrought iron and steel-edge share, and the lock-coulter, which 
passed up from the share through the beam, all agreeably to Mr. 
Webster's directions. Then the wheelwright was directed how to 
set the beam and handles. Everything must be done precisely as 
he directed as to landing of beam, pitch and landing of share, etc., 
and he felt as much interest and enthusiasm in the production of 
this plow as anybody could. 

" The mould-board was immensely large and long, and was con- 
structed substantially on Jefferson's principle of straight lines, 
but with such modifications and variations in form as Mr. Webster 
thought best, such as greater length, proportionately, and with 
more twist or overhang at the rear end, so as more surely to invert 
the sod in deep plowing. It was constructed to turn a furrow a 
foot deep and about two feet wide. The beam, of the toughest 
white oak, was long and of huge strength, sufficient for four yokes 
of his large oxen. 

" When the plow was completed, ready for trial in the ground, 
Mr. Webster was the first man to hold it, and worked several 
hours with it, feeling greatly delighted with the capacity of his 
new plow for deep, thorough work. 

" With this huge plow and a strong team the rough tillage lands 
at Marshfield, and such of the pastures as had become more or 
less covered with bushes and shrub oaks, small white birches, etc., 
were deeply plowed and thoroughly turned over and subdued. 
The bushes and shrubs were cut at the surface of the ground and 
cleared off the land, and the roots and stumps turned over by the 
plow. 

" I visited Marshfield and Mr. Webster about twenty years ago, 
when he showed me this plow, explained how and why he got it 
up, and took me to see a field which had recently boon cleared 
of bushes and shrubs and deeply plowed with this large plow. I 
remember his making a remark to me, substantially as follows: 
' When I have hold of the handles of my big plow in such a field 
as this, with four yokes of oxen to pull it through, and hear the 
roots crack, and see the stumps all go under the furrow, out of 
.sight, and observe t\w clean mellowed surface of the plowed land, 



History of the Plow. 107 

I feel more enthusiasm over my achievement than comes from my 
encounters in public life at Washington.' That is the idea, and 
not far from the language of his remark to me." 

The following letter, received after Gov. Holbrook's gives Mr. 
Harvey's recollections of the history of the Webster plow: 

" Boston, April 18th, 1868. 

" My Dear Sir — I send you, by to-day's mail, the drawings of 
the Webster plow, together with a sketch, which will give you 
the means of furnishing an accurate description of its dimensions. 

"This plow was manufactured in Mr. Webster's workshop on 
his farm at Marshfield; the model and plan of its construction 
was entirely his own, and much of the work was performed by 
his own hand. 

"He had, on his extensive farm at Marshfield, laying near to 
the sea (upland country), some eight or ten acres, more or less, 
on which there had been a growth of stunted oak, fit only for fire 
wood. This had been cut for this purpose; and an undergrowth 
of scraggy roots, spreading in every direction, had sprung up. 
It was useless for cultivation as it then was, the roots or stumps 
too small and too numerous to be removed with an ordinary stump 
puller, and too strong for any ordinary plow to grapple with. 
This plow was made to meet the difficulty, and succeeded. 

" I have seen the great man holding the plow, assisted by some 
six or eight farmers, with strong arms, while it was propelled by 
six pairs of oxen, tearing up roots and everything else that stood 
in its way, accomplishing a triumph great in its way, as had been 
often performed by its maker in the many intellectual triumphs 
in the forum and senate, and apparently giving him quite as 
much delight. 

"The plow proved a success, accomplishing all for which it 
was intended. 

" It is probably the largest plow ever built on this continent. 
'•Most respectfully, yours, 

"PETEB HARVEY." 

A great number of inventions for subsidiary purposes are 
recorded in the Patent Office, having for their object some 
improvement in the clevis, the wheel, the share and various other 
subordinate parts; but the next really earnest attempt to improve 
the form of the plow was by James Jacobs, whose patent is dated 
July 8th, 1834, and is represented in Fig. 67. 



108 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



The following extracts from his specification, will explain his 
ideas: 

" The mould-board of cast iron, Fig. 67, from the extreme 
points of the length of the mould-board, from a to b a straight 





line is to be struck from one to the other of six inches and one- 
eighth in length, and from the middle of this line a perpendicular 
is to be let fall to the surface of the mould-board, which will bo 
five-sixteenths of an inch. A line is now to be struck from the 
point c, which is to be at the commencement of the thin edge of 
the mould-board to the point d, placed at the shoulder on the 
under side, for the reception of the extreme edge of the back of 
the share of two and five-eighth inches in length. From the letter 
d to a, a straight line is also to be struck of four and five-sixteenl h 
inches in length; a perpendicular, let fall from the centre of this 
line to the surface of the mould-board, will be full three-eighth 
inch in length, and from said point c to the hinder circular edge 
of the mould-board, seven-sixteenths of an inch. From the point 
a, to the pointy, a line is drawn of four and seven-sixteenth 
inches in length, and a perpendicular raised from the eentre of 
this line to the top of the circular part of the upper edge of the 
mould-board will be a full quarter of an inch in length. From 
the letter/ to the letter b on the front edge of the mould-board 
a line is to be struck of two and three-quarter inches in length, and 
from the centre of this line a perpendicular let fall on the front 



History of the Plow. 109 

edge of the mould-board will be five-sixteenths inch in length. 
From the point d to the point b a line is to be struck of two and 
three-sixteenth inches in length, and a perpendicular raised from 
the centre of this line to the thin edge of the mould-board will 
be one-quarter inch in length. The portion of the surface of the 
mould-board, contained between each point or extremity of these 
original straight lines struck as above directed, is to be shaped 
upon that segment or portion of a circle as will be between said 
point having the perpendicular for the height of the arch; the 
line a b will be the only exception to the rule, and in this particu- 
lar that three-quarters of the distance across from a towards b will 
be described on nearly a straight line, the extremity of the point 
being a little elevated. 

" From the point k to the point g in Fig. 2, showing a left hand 
view of the mould-board, the line between these extremities or 
points will be of one and three-sixteenth inches in length, and 
another line from the point/ to g will be two and a half inches in 
length; the point h is to drop one-eighth of an inch below a hori- 
zontal line drawn from g towards b. From the point g to b the 
length of the line will be one and three-sixteenths inch. From 
the point h to I the length will be one and five-sixteenths of an 
inch. A perpendicular is let fall from the point a to the hori- 
zontal plane on which the flat part of the under side of the 
mould-board rests, designated by the point I, being that of the 
intersection, and another line at right angles with it, being con- 
tinued from the point I till it intersects the line running along 
the face of the slice from k to g, parallel with the bar, at the 
point j gives a line struck from I to j of three inches in length, 
which gives the correct width of the board behind from outside 
to outside. On the back of the inside of the mould-board a flat 
shoulder is formed of about two inches in length, increasing in 
thickness of the mould-board towards the upper part to about 
double the width of the average thickness of the mould-board 
throughout, and thereby presents a flat surface upon which the 
right handle is bolted. On the line k g, as a base, a perpendicu- 
lar is to be raised through f to the point m g two and three- 
quarter inches in height, and another parallel to it at one inch 
distant of two and nine-sixteenths of an inch in height. The 
distance from m to o will be a projection of one-quarter of an 
inch forwards. The curved line of the front edge of the slice 
continues its direction beyond / about half the distance on to ?n, 



110 Report on Trials of Plows. 

when it projects forward about one-quarter of an inch and is then 
moulded off to the point o, thereby leaving sufficient shoulder 
for the hole through which the front bolt is to be fastened. On 
the face of the mould-board, Fig. 1, the concave surface d to e 
continues in the same slope to about two-thirds the distance above 
the neck over the line f c, where it projects forward in a concave 
sufficiently deep for the reception of the head of the front bolt 
terminating at the top under the beam in a sharp edge, having 
the corners rounded off. The back part of this head runs back 
about one-quarter of an inch beyond the curved line of the back 
part of the slice, thereby leaving space for the insertion of a hole 
to. be cast for the reception of the end of the brace that extends 
from the heel of the bar to the said hole in the head. This form 
and arrangement present such a shaped mould or pattern as may 
be cast at one operation. 

" Fig. 3 is a view of the share where a line from the point a 
to the point c extends to two and four-eighths inches in length, 
and a line from c to b is of three and three-eighths inches in length, 
and the distance c to e is one and five-eighths inches along the bar. 
The width of the share from e to cZ is two and three-eighths 
inches, and the edge from heel to point is sharp throughout. 
That part between a and / extending in a circular from d to f, 
and the remainder of the point from f to a, is rounded at the 
extremity of said point. The depth at c, in Fig. 4, of the bar 
is to be three-eighths of an inch, and at e it is to be seven-eighths, 
and extending back to b of the same depth, this share and bar is 
to be made of wrought iron. These proportions are reduced to 
one-fourth of a plow of full size, so that in constructing a mould- 
board of the full size of my ' Smeller Plow ' the proportions are 
to be increased accordingly." 

It will be observed that Mr. Jacobs' method is wholly empirical, 
or, at least, if there is a principle involved in its construction, it 
is not obvious to us after a careful examination, and none is hinted 
at in the specification. It consists simply of lines drawn in certain 
directions, and of specified lengths in a plane and from given 
points in these lines, letting fall perpendiculars of given lengths, 
which are ordinates to the desired curve at these points; the points 
of the curve being ascertained in this way, the remainder of the 
pattern is cut away so as to form a regular curve with them. 

The next attempt to apply mathematical principles to the con- 
struction of the mould-board was made by Aaron Smith, of 



History of the Plow. 



Ill 



Bloomfield, Michigan, who obtained a patent May 10th, 1844. 
This is the plow which first came into notice as the " Michigan 
plow " at the great trial by the New York State Agricultural 
Society, at Albany, in 1850, and which, with some important 
modifications, is now known as the sod and sub-soil plow, and is 
one of the best plows in existence for sod lands. A figure of this 
plow complete is given in the Society's Transactions for 1850. 
Figs. 69 a, 69 b, 69 c, 69 d, 69 e, 69 /, 68 and 69 represent the 
plow in detail. Fig. 68 represents the sole; Fig. 69/' represents 
the sole of the share. 

The following extracts from the specification will give an idea 
of the principles involved in its construction: 

" Fig. 68 is a plan of the hind plow as I draw it on my working- 
board when preparing to make a pattern. The numbers on the line 
j j, representing the land side, show the distance between the 
principal points of the varying outline of the mould-board as 




Fiff. 68. 

marked by the dotted lines drawn at right angles to the land-side 
and terminating in those principal points. The distance from the 
face of the land side to these principal points are marked on these 
dotted lines. 

" Fig. 69 is a right-hand or face-view of the mould-board, with 
the share attached, showing the outline of its respective sides. The 
line u I is erected perpendicularly from the point of the mould- 
board. The measurements in the dotted lines, drawn horizontally 
from the perpendicular, give the outline of the head of the board, 



112 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



said measurements being taken at the respective distances marked 
on the perpendicular; the line m n is drawn in the plane of the 
base of the mould-board, and the numbers from the perpendicu- 
lars drawn from the line give the outline of the lower side of the 
end of the board, and also of the top of it as far as the liii". o p; 




Fig. 69. 

and the measurements from the line p r, drawn through the point 
p, parallel to the plane of the base ot the board, gives its remain- 
ing outline to the sheath (generally called the standard). The 
line n b' c' p is a guide line in forming the face of the board. The 
curve, b c h, may be determined bv the scale of one and a half 
inches to the foot, which is that to which the respective figures 
showing the parts in details are drawn. The face of the mould- 
board was exactly perpendicular, and the line op from q to p is 
in it; o p is also one of the guide lines in forming the face of the 
board. The rise of the line of the board from a' to t' is made at 
such a rate, compared with the spread of the board, as will exactly 
preserve through that distance the same width of the plow as at 
the heel, a'. From t' to the perpendicular the rise is such that 
the increased width of the plow (Fig. 68) is to the distance as 
one to two and one quarter inches, and from the perpendicular to 
the end of the board these measurements are as one to one. The 
point, t\ being where the action of the furrow slice, following 
that of the heel, a', commences, I make that a point through which 
to draw a lino from the point of the mould-board, 11, to the per- 
pendicular. This line 'also lies in the surface of the board, and as 



History of the Plow. 



113 




■*** <?y *. 





22',. 

Fig. 69, d. 




Fig. 69, e. 



114 Report on Trials of Plows. 

a guide line. The lines v p and v u, both being in the surface of 
the board, the one where the furrow slice is nearly horizontal, 
and the other where it is perpendicular, the point, v, Fig. 69, 
I take as a radiating point to u b' c' p. A straight edge is to lie 
in each of these radiating lines so as to fit the actual mould-board. 

" The same figure also exhibits another series of lines which lie 
in the surface of the board. These are parallel to the forward 
part of the base, u s, of the board, and touch the curve, u b c p. 
and the perpendicular, o p. They are also fitted by a straight 
edge. The angle formed by the base of the land side and the 
line u s is about 37^ degrees. The triangular space, a' s m, repre- 
sents the heel of the mould-board, which is so formed as to cause 
it to lift or carry up the furrow slice to the top of that of the 
forward plow, which is from three to three and a half inches. 
The form of this part is shown in Fig. 69, b is, which is an end 
view of the heel, looking at it from the rear end of the plow. 
The line a s is formed by the termination of the curving out of the 
mould-board as seen at a', Fig. 69, b is; the part a' in the same 
figure being a vertical continuation of the body of the mould- 
board down to the sole, by which particular form this part is 
removed entirely out of the way of the furrow slice of the forward 
plow. The slice cut off by the fore plow may be about two and 
a half or three inches in thickness, and it is turned over by it 
into the furrow last made. 

"Fig. 9 is a left-hand view of the mould-board of the forward 
plow, separate from the share and land side. E, Fig. 12 is the 
share seen in place in Figs. 16 and 17. 

" Fig. 14 is the plan of the length and width of this plow cor- 
responding to Fig. 68 of the hind plow. 

" Fig. 15 is a rigbt-hand view of the mould-board, share and 
coulter as combined for use. 

" It will be seen on inspection that the curve of the mould- 
board forms an irregular conical figure, the larger end being 
directed forward." 

In October, 1839, Samuel "Witherow. of Gettysburg, and 
David Pierce, of Philadelphia, took out a patent which was truly 
novel. We have not been able to ascertain that it ever got into 
general use, but it certainly seems worthy of a thorough trial. 
The following extract from the specification will show the prin- 
ciple upon which it was founded very clearly: 

"It is a principle resting upon mathematical demonstration that 



History of the Plow. 



115 



a cycloidal arc is that which offers the least resistance to a 
descending body, and it is hence deducible that an ascending 
body will pass up a cycloidal curve with less resistance than up 
any other." 

This may be true, but we have never seen any such demonstra- 
tion. It is undoubtedly true that a body will fall through a 
cycloidal arc in less time than any other. 

" The construction of our mould-boards is dependent on this 
principle. In forming them we employ the cycloidal curve in 
two ways, namely, to the formation of the concave of the mould- 
board in the lines of ascent of the sward or furrow slice in the 
act of plowing. The second application of the cycloidal curve is 
in the convex curve along the sole of the plow, constituting the 
part which enters and cuts the ground horizontally. In the 
accompanying drawing, Fig. 70 represents a mould-board, A being 

its point and B its heel; 



h_ the line A B is that of 
the sole constituting the 
lower edge which cuts 
the furrow slice horizon- 
tally. This curve in a 
plow which has been 
essayed, and has been 
found to answer well, was generated by a circle of eighteen 
inches in diameter. 

" In Fig. 71 the curve CDE may represent the cycloid genera- 
ted by the circle F. The point 
D, which is that of least curva- 
ture, corresponds with the point 
A of the plow Fig. 70, the 
cycloidal line continuing to the 
hind part or heel at B. It will, 
no doubt, be advantageous to 
vary the curve according to the nature of the soil — a point to be 
determined by experience — but whatever variation may be found 
useful in this respect is still to be made in conformity with the 
principle upon which we proceed, namely, that of making it 
cycloidal. The line I H along the upper part of the mould-board 
and in a plane parallel to that of the plane of the line A B, we 
also make to fit the same cycloidal gauge. 

" In the plow that has been put in operation with a view of testing 




Fig. 70. 




Fig. 71. 



116 Report on Trials of Plows. 

the principle, the lines of the ascent of the furrow slice which 
govern the concavity of the mould-board, were regulated by a 
cycloidal gauge made to a curve generated by a circle of sixteen 
inches in diameter. Let C D G, Fig. 71, represent such a gauge, 
and the lines a 2 a 3 , &c, Fig. 70, be assumed as those of the ascent of 
the furrow slice on the mould-board; in forming said board we 
place the gauge in the direction a' with the part D, which is that of 
least curvature at a', and thus proceed on until we arrive at the 
hinder part, B H, withdrawing or lowering the gauge at its lower 
end at each successive application, so that a small portion of the 
least curved portion towards D, and a larger portion of that 
towards C shall touch the mould-board; these successive depres- 
sions may be indicated by the divisions at D upon the gauge. 
The degree in which the mould-board shall curve and hang over 
at H for turning the furrow slice may be varied according to the 
judgment of the maker, the curvature being governed by the 
diameter of the generating circle and the degree in which the 
gauge is depressed at every successive application of it. 

"Having thus fully set forth the nature of our invention, and 
shown the manner in which we carry the same into operation, 
what we claim therein is the giving to our mould-board the seg- 
ment of a cycloid convexly on its face in a line leading from front 
to rear, and concavely in the lines of the ascent of the furrow 
slice." 

Remarks. by the Inventors. 

"The main object is to pulverize the soil" — (they are the first 
who have made this avowal among inventors) — " and the only way 
in which this can be effected is by bending a furrow slice on a 
curved surface" — (this is the first allusion that we have met with 
to the influence of the shape of the surface in cracking the soil) — 
"so formed that it shall also twist it somewhat in the manner of 
the screw. Such a surface will be formed by taking a strip of 
iron and twisting it after the manner of a screw auger; and if 
there is given to this piece of iron a greater twist at one end than 
the other, cycloidal curves may be thereby produced. Now as 
the curvature of the cycloidal mould-hoard generally increases 
from the lowest to the highest point of ascent, it follows, neces- 
sarily, that the furrow slice, in passing along it, will be more and 
more bent as it ascends. By forming the fore part of the mould- 
board by means of that point of the cycloidal gauge which has 
the least curvature and the hinder part by that portion which has 



History of tee Plow, 117 

the greatest, the bending of the furrow will continue and be 
increased as it passes horizontally as well as in its ascent. By 
forming the lines of ascent cycloidal concavely and the horizontal 
lines cycloidal convexly, the twist in the mould-board will gradu- 
ally increase from the fore to the hinder part as the curves con- 
tract, which will operate very advantageously in pulverizing the 
soil. The convex cycloidal form given to the horizontal lines will 
cause the furrow slice to leave the mould-board in a direction 
well calculated to prevent it from falling off in segments. The 
advantages possessed by this mould-board, as has been abundantly 
proved in practice, are, that it will seem light, and that it will 
turn the furrow slice over in a connected sheet well pulverized." 

It has always been an object with inventors to diminish the 
friction of the land side. The first earnest attempt to realize this 
idea in practice was by T. D. Burrall, of Geneva, who claimed, on 
the 28th of October, 1843, as follows: 

"The nature of the invention consists in removing the sole of 
the land side, and placing an inclined wheel, denominated a shell 
wheel, between the land side and the mould-board, with its face 
in a line with the cut of the coulter. The land side curves up 
from the point of the share and backward to the junction of the 
handle and beam. The beam is halved on the land side outward 
and the handle is affixed to the side of it, the whole being secured 
by a screw bolt passing through them. This forms a secure joint, 
without tenon and mortise, without materially weakening the beam 
or handles. This plow was carefully tested by the New York State 
Agricultural Society. At first it ran easier than the plows that 
were tried in competition with it, but after a little while it became 
choked, and then its draft was greater than the others. The 
judges of the society did not consider it an improvement, and we 
believe the public have pretty fully ratified their decision." 

In the year 1839, Cyrus Alger, of Boston, received a patent for 
annealing cast iron plows, by which they were rendered malleable, 
so that the shape could be altered when desired, and then hardened 
and tempered like steel. "We are not informed whether this 
patent was ever brought into practical use, or whether it answered, 
in any tolerable degree, the purposes for which it was designed. 
If it really accomplished what it proposed to do, it would, in our 
judgment, be very important. 

The next attempt at a mathematical mould-board was made by 
Mr. Samuel A. Knox, of Worcester, for many years the foreman 



118 Report on Trials of Plows. 

of Messrs. Buggies, Nourse & Mason. It is strictly geometrical 
in its construction, and it probably works with as little resistance 
as any plow that was ever made. It turns over the furrow very 
handsomely as well as evenly, and would secure the unlimited 
approbation of an English plowman; but its pulverizing power is 
somewhat deficient, and it therefore fails in what we consider one 
of the most important functions of a plow. A view of all the 
lines is given in Plate VIII. The patent for this method was 

granted in 1852. 

Knox's Specification. 

"To enable any one skilled in the art of plow-making to form 
the mould-board of plows, according to my said invention, I will 
first describe the mode of determining the form of the surface 
of a pattern from which to mould and cast the mould-board of a 
green-sward, flat-furrow plow intended for a twelve-inch furrow; 
and I will then indicate the changes necessary to the production 
of the required form for an old-ground plow, from which any 
skillful plowmaker w T ill be enabled to make the necessary changes 
for plows of any other dimensions. 

"For making the pattern from which to cast the mould-board 
of a green-sward, flat-furrow plow, I first determine the propor- 
tions of the base by drawing a line, A a, diagram Fig. 1, which 
represents the line of the land side, and at right angles to this I 
draw another line, B b, on which I determine the breadth of the 
base of the plow from the line of the laud side to the heel, c, of 
the mould-board, say twelve inches for a furrow of that breadth. 
and this I divide into inches. I then draw two lines, D d and 
E e, parallel with, and one on each side of, and at a distance of 
twelve inches from, the line B b. I then draw a diagonal line. 
F f, from the intersection of the line D d and A a, passing 
through the line B b ate (the heel of the intended mould-board), 
and project the said line until it intersects the line E e at e, and 
the plane of this line, E f, perpendicular to the base, at the 
required height, to be hereafter specified, determines the inclina- 
tion of the upper edge of the working surface of the intended 
mould-board to the vertical plane of the line A a or land side. 
The distance of the point of the plow at g, from the line B b. is 
determined by multiplying the length of the diagonal line, /•'/', 
in inches, from the point where i( intersects the lines A a and 
D d to the point of its intersection with the line B b, by an 
equal number of inches, and then dividing this product by the 



Fi 



E 




Li\\u$Lauk) J|) fJL^ 



^' a 



Fig. 6. 





Fig. & 






Fig. 7. 



7 - 



Fig. 1 



Plate VIII. 



3Viw,o;.v) . © aJiivvuiyvu) iwUl^WftftUl 



iv) <oI) (2) loiUUS.) , 




History of the Plow. 119 

breadth of the intended plow at the heel, c, of the mould-board, 
say twelve inches, the product of which will be twenty-four inches 
and one twelfth (24^), and add to this product one-tenth thereof, 
which will make the distance of the point from the line B b 
twenty-six inches and fifty -nine one hundred and twentieths (f 5 ^)- 

"Having determined the above proportions, I build up a block, 
represented at Figs. 2 and 3, from which to form the pattern, and 
consisting of a series of flat blocks of wood, glued together to 
the required height in the usual manner of preparing blocks for 
making plow patterns. 

" The face, A a, of the said block is made perpendicular to the 
base and corresponds to the line A a or land side of diagram 
Fig. 1; the end, E e, presents a plane perpendicular to the base 
and at right angles to the face, A a, and corresponding with the 
line E e, of diagram Fig. 1, and the opposite end at g is cut to 
the required length for the location of the point of the plow. 
On the under side or face of this block I transfer the two lines 
B b and D d and the diagonal line Ffivom. diagram Fig. 1, as 
represented in the dotted lines, Fig. 3. And I also mark on the 
face, A a, and also on the opposite face of the said black lines, 
B b and D d to represent the planes of the said lines perpen- 
dicular to the base, as represented by dotted lines in Fig. 2. 

"I divide the block into three imaginary divisions by three 
imaginary planes perpendicular to the base, and corresponding 
with the three lines B b, D d and E e, the first division being at 
the line D d, the second at the line B b, and passing through the 
heel of the intended mould-board, and the third at the line E e; 
I then draw a diagram, Fig. 6, with a base line representing 
the base of the plow on which I erect a perpendicular line, A; a 
representing the land side or line A a, diagram Fig. 1, and parallel 
therewith, and at a distance therefrom of equal to the breadth of 
the plow from the heel of the mould-board, in this case twelve 
inches, draw line B corresponding with the line B b on diagram 
Fig. 1, and from the base mark on the said line twelve divisions 
of one inch each, numbered from one to twelve. And I then 
strike the arc of a circle, h, on a radius of double the breadth of 
the intended plow at the heel of the mould-board, which in this 
case will be twenty-four inches, the said arc being made to inter- 
sect the line B b at the base and at the twelfth division from the 
base; and then draw lines parallel with the base through each of 
the points of the twelve divisions to intersect or cut the said arc, 



120 Report on Trials of Plows. 

the said lines being indicated by the figures numbering the several 
divisions on the line B b. The arc h represents the concavity of 
the face of the intended mould-board at the second imaginary 
division. And the point of intersection of the said arc h with 
the base in the position of the heel of the mould-board and 
marked c, and the point of its intersection with the division line 
12 determines the height of the line Ff of the upper edge of 
the working surface of the mould-board and perpendicularly over 
the heel of the mould-board. 

" On the said diagram Fig. 6, I draw another line, E e, parallel 
with the line B b, and at a distance therefrom equal to the breadth 
of the plow at the heel of the mould-board, and in this case 
twelve inches. I then draw a straight line, <7/ 4 , from the point of 
intersection of the line A a with the base to the point of intersec- 
tion of the division line 4 with the arc h, and project it beyond the 
arc h. But it becomes necessary to determine the height, from 
the base, at which this line g f i will intersect the plane of the 
third division. This I obtain on Fig. 5, which represents the 
lines on the face of the mould-board when projected on a plane 
perpendicular to the base. On this figure I draw the three par- 
allel lines D d, B b, E e perpendicular to the base, and, as in 
the other figures, indicating the first, second and third divisions, 
as also the distance of the point g of the plow from the second 
division. I transfer on the line B b of this Fig. 5, from diagram 
Fig. 6, the several divisions numbered from one to twelve of the 
arc h of Fig. 6, and I then draw a straight line from the point g 
through the division numbered 4 and project it to the line E e, 
or plane of the third division, and this gives the inclination of 
the line gf l to the base, and hence the height of its intersection 
with the plane of the third division. And this height from the 
base I transfer to diagram Fig. 6, and draw through it a line M m 
parallel with the base until it intersects the line g f 4 on this dia- 
gram Fig. 6, and from this point of intersection I describe the 
arc of a cirlc I on a radius equal to the breadth of the plow at 
the heel of the mould-board, in this case twelve inches; I then 
describe an arc of a circle, k, of a radius of four times the breadth 
of the plow at the heel of the mould-board, and in this case 
forty-eight inches, making the said arc pass through the points of 
intersection of the arc I with the line E e, and the line gf A with 
the line Mm. This arc of a circle, k, determines the concavity 
of the face of the mould-hoard at the plane of the third division, 



History of the Plow. 121 

and the point of its intersection with the line E e determines the 
height of the upper edge of the working surface of the mould- 
board from the base. And having thus obtained this height I 
transfer it on to the line E e, Fig. 5, and from this height I draw 
the diagonal line Ef 12 intersecting the division 12 on the line 
B b twelve inches from the base, and project it to the front end 
of the plow. The inclination of this line to the base line gives 
the inclination of the upper edge of the working surface to the 
base of the plow, its inclination to the plane of the land side 
having been determined by the line Ef on diagram Fig. 1. The 
inclination of the line g jT 4 to the plane of the base has already- 
been determined, and to determine its inclination to the plane of 
the land side, I delineate on diagram Fig. 1 the arc h of Fig. 6, 
so that the chord of the arc shall be parallel with the line A a, 
and intersecting the line B b at the point c, or heel of the mould- 
board, and so that the line of division 4 shall coincide with the 
line B b, the convexity of the arc being towards the line A a, I 
then draw the diagonal line g f* from the point g of the plow to 
the line E e, or third division, and intersecting the line B b at 
the point of its intersection with the arc h. The inclination of 
this line, gf A , to the plane of the land side, so determined on 
diagram Fig. 1, I transfer to Fig. 4, which represents a plan view 
of the mould-board, with the lines projected on a horizontal 
plane, where it indicates the inclination of that part of the sur- 
face of the mould-board to the plane of the land side, along the 
entire length of the mould-board, the inclination thereof to the 
base having already been defined and represented in Fig. 5. 

"Having, in the manner above described, defined and located 
the inclination of the surface of the mould-board to the plane of 
the base and the plane of the land side, along the straight line 
Ef 12 or upper edge of the working surface, and along the straight 
edge, g / 4 , from the point of the plow to the third division, it 
becomes necessary to define the form at certain distances between 
these two lines sufficiently near to each other that the workman 
may practically work down the whole surface of the mould-board. 
I have found that by lifting the form on the lines at distances of 
about an inch apart, that the workman can finish the residue of the 
surface with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes; but, 
after the location of certain lines at this distance apart, by the 
same rules these divisions can be multiplied to an indefinite 
extent. 



122 Report on Trials of Plows. 

"Referring to diagram Fig. 6, the diagonal lines Ff 12 and gf i 
will be found. On the line JE el divide the space between the 
points of its intersection with the arc, k, and the line M m into 
eight equal parts, and from each of the points of division I draw 
lines parallel with the base to intersect the arc, k, and these points 
of intersection I mark from 4 to 12, as the divisions are marked 
on the arc, h, of the second division; and I then draw diagonal 
lines, f 5 , f 6 , f, / s , f 9 , f 10 , f 11 , passing through points of the 
divisions correspondingly numbered on the arc, h, of the second 
division, and on the arc, k, of the third division, and project them 
until they intersect the first division. On Fig. 5, I measure the 
height from the base where the line F f 12 intersects the line D d 
or plane of the first division, and transfer that distance or height 
on the line A a or plane of the land side. In like manner, on 
Fig. 5, I measure the distance or height from the base where the 
line g f* intersects the line D d or plane of the first division, and 
transfer that height on to the line A «, of Fig. 6, from the base, 
and draw a line, JST n, parallel with the base until the said line 
intersects the diagonal line, g f i , and this point of intersection 
will be found to be at the same distance from the line A a, Fig. 1, 
as the point of its intersection of the said line g f A with the line 
D d or plane of the first division is distant from the plane of the 
land side, so that these several points of intersection on these 
several figures prove each other. I then strike an arc, o, of the 
same radius as the arc k (forty-eight inches), so that it shall inter- 
sect the point where the line F f 12 intersects the line A a, and 
also the point where the line J^n intersects the diagonal line gf l ; 
and the distance between the lines F f 12 and JVn, where these 
lines cut the said line A a, I divide into eight equal parts, and 
from these divisions I draw lines parallel with the base, and these 
several lines will be found to cut the several diagonal lines, f 5 to 
/' ll , inclusive, where they intersect the arc o, which points <>t' 
intersection on the said arc, o, are numbered from 5 to 11, as the 
corresponding divisions are marked on the ares, // and /•, of the 
second and third divisions. 

" From the several points of intersection on the said arcs << and /■ 
of the first and third divisions, numbered from 4 to 12 inclusive, 
I draw lines perpendicular to the base, and cutting the said base 
lines; and the divisions thus obtained on the base line of Fig. 6 
I then transfer to Fig. 4, transferring the divisions obtained from 
the are o on to the line D d, or first division, and beginning with . . 



History of the Plow. 123 

number 4, which will be found to coincide with the diagonal 
line gf* and ending with number 12, which in both figures is the 
point of intersection of the diagonal line Ff i2 with the lineal a 
or plane of the land side. And the divisions obtained from the 
arc h or third division, in like manner transfer to the line E e, or 
third division, on Fig. 4, measuring on both figures from the lines 
A a, or plane of the land side, and the division number 4 will be 
found to coincide with the diagonal gf 4 , and the division num- 
ber 12 with the diagonal line Ff 12 or upper edge of the working 
surface of the mould-board. From the several points of division 
thus transferred on the lines D d and E e of Fig. 4, except the 
two numbered 4 and 12, on which the lines Ff 12 and g f* were 
previously drawn, I draw straight lines diagonal to the plane of 
the land side, which lines are marked Ff 5 to 11 inclusive. And 
where these several lines cut the lines B b, or plane of the second 
division, the distance of each from the line A a, or plane of the 
land side, will be found, on measurement, to be equal to the dis- 
tance of the correspondingly numbered divisions on the arc h of 
the second division from the line A a on diagram Fig. 6. In this 
way the inclination which the surface of the mould-board makes 
to the plane of the land side along the several lines gf A to Ff 1 ' 2 
is obtained, defined and proved, and it only remains to obtain, 
define and prove the inclination of the said surface to the base of 
the plow along the said lines. This is done by transferring the 
divisions on the arcs o and k, as projected by lines parallel with 
the base, to the lines A a and E e. Those on the line A a of 
Fig. 6, I transfer to the line D d of Fig. 5, measuring both figures 
from the base; and those on line E e of Fig. 6 to the correspond- 
ing line E e of Fig. 5, measuring both figures from the base. 
The surface of the mould-board having been defined at the first, 
second and third divisions, and along the several inclined lines 
from g f* to F f 12 , the workman will be enabled to make the 
surface between conform properly to the surface at these lines; 
but it will be obvious that the number of graduations on the arc 
h of the second division, instead of being made one inch apart, 
which I have found to be sufficient in practice, may be made as 
much less than an inch as the constructor may desire. As the 
form below the line g f x runs into the cutting edge of the share 
it is left to the judgment of the constructor to determine the 
form of that part, as also the form or extent of the surface above 
the line of the upper working edge of the mould-board and the 



124 Report on Trials of Plows. 

extent of the wing back of the second division, as it may be cut 
short of, or extended back of the third division; as also with the 
amount to be cut away along the lower edge of the wing back of 
the heel of the mould-board. 

" The drawings represent that form of the auxiliary parts which 
I prefer, but to which I do not wish to be understood as confining 
myself. The points where the several lines g f i to F f li inter- 
sect the vertical plane of the land side, and marked p 4 to p 12 , in 
Fig. 5, will give the general configuration of the line of the 
forward cutting-edge, termed the shin of the plow. The mode 
of procedure which I have adopted for working out the block of 
wood to the form required for making a pattern is as follows: I 
make an instrument or gauge, Fig. 7, consisting of a plate, q, on 
a base, r, at right angles therewith, and one edge of the plate, q, 
is cut to a form fitting the concavity or the arc, h, Fig. 6, when the 
base, r, of the said instrument is in the plane of the base of the 
said Fig. 6, and hence this curved edge will be the proper gauge 
to determine when the face of the block, Figs. 2 and 3, is cut to 
the required concavity in the plane of the second division. I 
transfer on the face of the plate, q, of the said gauge up to the 
curved edge thereof, the graduations or divisions of the arc, h, 
Fig. 6. When the plane of the said gauge is in the plane of the 
second division, B b, and the plane of its base in the plane of the 
base of the block and the angle, c, at twelve inches from the face, 
A a, of the said block, or vertical plane of the land side, then 
the workman has obtained the required concavity of the face of 
the block in the plane of the second division, and marks thereon 
the divisions on the face of the gauge to locate the several 
divisions, numbered from 1 to 12, of Fig. 6. I then make another 
gauge, Fig. 8, in like manner, with the curved edge thereof rilled 
to the concavity of the arc k, Fig. 6. While the base of the gauge 
is in the plane of the base of Fig. 6, and on the face of this gauge, 
I transfer the graduations of the arc k. I then cut into the face 
of the block, in the direction of the plane of the third division, 
until the curved edge of the said gauge touches every part of the 
said surface, and its vertical edge, E e, is at the same distance 
from the plane of the block which represents the land side, as (he 
line E e, Fig. 6, is from the line A a, of the said figure, and the 
base of the gauge is in the plane of the base of the block. This 
determines the requisite concavity of the block in the plane of 
the third division, and at the required distance from the land 



History of the Plow. 125 

side, and I then transfer on the surface of the block the gradua- 
tions on the edge of the gauge, numbered from 4 to 12. 

" I then make a third gauge, Fig. 9, in like manner as the other 
two, to correspond in every respect with the arc o, Fig. 6, as the 
other gauges were made to correspond with the arcs h and k. I 
cut and mark the surface of the block on the plane of the first 
division in the same manner as it was cut and marked by the 
other gauges in the plane of the second and third divisions, and 
bearing the same relation to the face of the block which repre- 
sents the land side that the arc o, on Fig. 6, bears to the line A a 
or plane of the land side. Having thus cut away the surface of 
the block to the required concavity in the plane of the first, 
second and third divisions, and marked and numbered thereon the 
several graduations to correspond with the graduations on the 
arcs o, h and k, of Fig. 6, I then cut away the surface of the 
block in the direction of straight lines, so that a straight edge 
will touch along the entire length of the surface, passing through 
the graduations correspondingly numbered on the concavity at 
the three divisions, as shown on Figs. 4 and 5 by the lines g f x 
Ff 5 to Ff 12 , inclusive, and then work off the remaining portions 
of the surface between and beyond these lines to a form which 
will correspond therewith." 

Plows had previously been made approaching in some degree 
to a cylindrical form, but Mr. Joshua Gibbs, on the 15th of 
August, 1854, patented a plow which strictly conformed to this 
principle, as will be seen by the following extracts from his 
specification: 

" Fig. 72 is an elevation of my improved plow, showing the 
working side of the mould-board. Fig. — is the representation 
of the interior of a cylinder from which the mould-board was 
made. Fig. — is a section of said cylinder. Fig. — , the mould- 
board as seen when looking at the forward end. Fig. — , the 
land side and parts connected with it. * * * * 

" The working surface of the mould-board, A, consists of about 
one-quarter of the interior surface of a hollow cylinder, one end 
of which is represented in Fig. — , and a section of the interior 
in Fig. — . If the plow is intended to turn a furrow six inches 
wide, a mould-board made from a cylinder of about twelve inches 
bore is desirable; but if it is to turn a furrow twelve inches 
wide, the mould-board should be made from a cylinder with a 
bore of about two feet. As these plows have been found to work 



126 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



best when the length of the mould-board is from once and a half 
to twice the diameter of the bore of the cylinder from which the 
mould-board is made, and the form of its exterior edges about the 
same as represented in the drawing, the mould-board may be 
fastened to the other parts of the plow as may be convenient or 
desirable, taking into consideration the material from which it is 
made. The share is fitted to the lower edge of the mould-board, 
and its point is fitted to a recess in the heel of the coulter, C. 




Fig. 72. 



"It has been found that when the top of the land side was 
made parallel with the bottom, and a wooden standard fitted to 
it, with a shoulder fitted against the top edge of the land side, 
that the shoulder upon the wooden standard is soon worn off as 
the wood wears away, so as to leave the plow defective and liable 
to get loose and shackling. 

" To remedy this defect, and improve the plow in this respect. 
I make the top of the land side, D, opposite to the wooden stand- 
ard, E, at an angle about as represented in the drawing, that is, 
higher towards the forward end of the plow, so that the iron land 
side shall protect the shoulder of the wooden standard, E, and 
prevent it from being worn otf, so as to preserve a shoulder upon 
the standard, E, as long as there is any of the iron of the angle, 
1F, remains upon the land side to press against it, when the false 
coulter, or bolt, G, is screwed up to hold the parts together." 
Claim — "making the working surface of the mould-board in the 
form of a hollow cylinder; the centre or axis of said cylinder 



History of the Plow. 127 

being parallel or nearly parallel horizontally to the base of the 
mould-board or bottom of the plow substantially as described." 

In 1858, H. M. Piatt invented a plow which was literally a 
screw-auger. It had wings, and a pair of broad wheels which 
turned an axis on which a mitre wheel was keyed, which played 
in a pinion upon the shaft of the auger, which drew the slice 
backward on to the wings, which rolled it over into position. 
We believe this has not been successful in practice. 

M. L. Roberts, of Smithville, Canada West, has no land side, 
but in place of it a wheel whose plane is at an angle of 45 degrees, 
and the mould-board consists of vertical rollers, the object of 
which is to diminish the friction of plowing. 

Chapman & Barnum have also patented a device for diminishing 
the friction of the land side, which consists in substituting for the 
ordinary rear wing of the mould-board a revolving body what 
would be called a cone if its sides were bounded by straight lines. 
The sections, made vertically through the axis, are arcs of circles. 
The small end of the cone is directed downward and the larger 
one upward. The lower end of the axis is inserted into a pro- 
longation of the shoe, backward, the upper one being inserted in 
a bar, movable laterally, so as to increase or diminish the angle of 
the axis, at pleasure, with the plane of the sole. 

We have not tried any of these friction expedients, but, from 
the best information we can obtain, they are illusory, and have 
never, so far, been practically successful. 

In September, 1863, Mr. Mead, of New Haven, obtained a 
patent for a plow, the share and mould-board of which conform 
exactly to the surface of a frustum of a cone, as shown in Fig. 73. 

We have now passed in review all the expedients which have 
been devised within the period of four thousand years for the 
improvement of the plow. We do not natter ourselves that we 
have seized on all the successive steps which have been made in 
the construction of this most important implement. If any 
attempt has been made to write a connected history of the plow 
before us, we have not been able to find it. We have traveled 
through a field hitherto unexplored, and it would indeed be 
wonderful if we should not miss some of the objects lying in our 
way. 

It will be seen that the first idea of the plow was a crooked 
stick, of which various forms were in use. Then came the pro- 
vision of an iron point to the plow. Up to this time the crooked 



128 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



sticks used were on the principle of the double mould-board; 
they threw off the earth on each side. The next step was to hew 
off one side of the stick, so as to throw out the earth only on one 
side, approximating to a single mould-board. Then the plow 
became a simple wedge, the land side being nearly parallel with 
the line of the plow's motion, the other moving the furrow slice 
to the right, but leaving the furrow standing on edge. Then the 
wedge was gradually twisted so as regularly to invert the furrow. 
Jefferson and Small discovered the importance of straight lines 
running from the sole to the top of the share and mould-board. 




Fig. 73. 

Colonel Pickering was the first to discover the importance of a 
straight line running from the front to the rear. Jethro Wood 
discovered that all the lines running from front to rear should be 
straight. Mr. Knox first discovered a method of laying down 
all the lines of a plow on a plane surface. Mr. John Mears was 
the first to discover the importance of centre draft, and pointed 
out the practical means of attaining it by the inclination of the 
land side inward. 

Aaron Smith was the first to adopt two plows to work well 
together, one of which threw two or three inches of the surface 
into the bottom of the preceding furrow, and the other covered 
it with the lower earth. 

Finally, Governor Holbrook has invented a method by which 
plows of any size may be made symmetrically, either convex or 
concave, in such a way as to insure the complete pulverization of 
the soil. 

We believe that we have been the first to announce that the 
great object in all plows is to form the curve in such a way as to 
make all the parts of the furrow slice to travel with different 



History of the Plow. 129 

velocities in order to produce pulverization, but that these differ- 
ent velocities should be no greater than is required for the disin- 
tegration of the soil, in order to avoid an unnecessary expenditure 
of power. 

In view of the fact that the plow has always been regarded as 
the basis of all civilization and all wealth, it may well excite 
astonishment that it should have required so many years to have 
made the few successive advances which we have just detailed. 

We can only account for the apparent anomaly by remembering 
that very few of the gifted minds of successive generations have 
devoted their attention to the plow, and that until the present 
time there has been no clear and definite idea in the minds of 
inventors of the precise objects which they were seeking to 
accomplish. 

We hope it will be found that the very careful and accurate 
trials with superior instruments made at Utica, will have the effect 
of giving more definite ideas to the inventors of the country, and 
that the result will be seen in a more rapid series of improve- 
ments in the plow in the next five years than has been accom- 
plished in the preceding centuries. 

Just as the manuscript is going into the hands of the printer 
we have received a pamphlet giving a description of Dr. Grant's 
new invention of a plow for deep tillage. 

We are heartily in sympathy with the objects which the Doctor 
has in view, but as we have never seen the plow nor its work we 
can give no intelligent opinion of our own as to his success in 
practically accomplishing those objects. 

We give the drawings and description from the pamphlet as a 
part of the current history of the plow. 



Fig. 1 represents the Iona turning plow, which has been fitted 
for receiving certaii* additions by which it is transformed to ar» 
9 



180 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



implement of . entirely new character, and rendered capable of 
very desirable preparation of the ground by deep working. The 
additions are very readily applied when the transformation is 
required, and as easily laid aside again when it is wanted for 
ordinary work without impairing in any degree its utility or con- 
venience. 

Fig. 2 represents the most important of the additions for the 
transformation to which all of the others are accessory or sup- 
plemental. This consists chiefly of an inclined 
plane or share, either in one or more pieces, as 
circumstances may determine. This arrangement 
has a corresponding land side, to which the 
original gives place in transformation. There are 
two sizes of the inclined plane, designated as No. 1 and No. 2. 
The latter is able to raise its slice of subsoil from the greater 
depth. Each size of the inclined planes has a corresponding 
accessory part for rendering them more efficient for certain pur- 
poses that will be noted in the account of the operation of the 
implement. There are also two supplementary pieces for increas- 
ing the width of the mould-board at its upper edge, the wider of 
which is used for the deeper working. 




Fig. 2. 




Fig. S. 

Fin. 3 represents the most simple form of the Transformed No. 
1, having the narrow supplemental plate and the No. 1 inclined 
plane without any of the accessories, all of which are important 
in fitting it for the variety of uses to which it is adapted. These 
are of the utmost simplicity in their manner of application, arc 
durable in wear, and not liable to break or get out of repair. 
These plows perform easily and thoroughly the operation of 
trench plowing, that is often attempted 'but always with a very 



History of the Plow. 



131 



small measure of success) by driving large plows of the ordinary 
construction twice in the same furrow. The inclined plane per- 
forms thoroughly the work of a shovel or spade, and much more, 
taking up the subsoil cleanly from the bottom, leaving a level 
floor, finely pulverizing and mingling it with the fertile soil, but 
placing more of the surface soil at and towards the bottom than 
toward the top, or vice versa, as may be desired, mingling manure 
also most intimately throughout, when that is used. 




Fig. 4. 

Fig. 4 represents Great Trench Plow No. 1. It cuts a furrow 
ten inches wide, and has good turning power for any thickness 
of slice not exceeding ten inches, and is calculated for any depth 
not greater than twenty inches. It is designed for heavy soils. 




Fig. 5. 

Fig. 5 represents Great Trench Plow No. 2, which is designed 
for moderately adhesive loams, and for very friable sandy and 
gravelly soils, and will do the work well two feet deep, or any 
less that may be required. 

Fig. 6 represents a great Trenching Plow that is constructed 
for working in loams or clays, but is prepared for the reception 
of appliances that adapt it for light loams or the most crumbly 



132 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



gravels. Its gauge is for less depth than the preceding, but by 
the assistance of the appliances it may be fitted for a depth of 
twenty inches or more. 




Fig. 6. 



Fig. 7 represents a larger plow of tne same plan as the pre- 
ceding, that by such accessions as are represented in the cut can 
be regulated for any kind of practicable soil and for any depth 
between sixteen and twenty-four inches. 




Fig. 7. 

Deep working may be divided into two kinds that are effectual, 
and one ineffectual. The two effectual kinds may be designated 
by the terms half-trenching and trenching, or, for marked distinc- 
tion, thorough-trenching. The former is often preparatory to the 
latter. Ineffectual deep-working is when tillage plows, going 
deeper thnn their turning gauge, simply raise the soil to let it fall 
back as if nearly undisturbed. Trenching (or thorough-trenthing) 
consists in reversing the two strata, thai is. putting the upper 
fertile portion below, and lower unfertile portion above, the 
thickness of the latter being determined by the depth of working. 
For convenience, Ave designate these strata by the terms soil and 
subsoil, as well as by the descriptive terms fertile portion and 



History of the Plow. 



133 




Fig. /. 




Fig. 2. 



unfertile portion, using them interchangeably, as may seem most 

convenient or applicable. 

When pretty deep trenching is to be done, the labor of opening 

the first trench is considerably greater than that required for the 

succeeding ones, whether 
performed with spade or 
plow, but particularly so 
with the latter. Fig. 1 
represents a trench about 
nine inches deep, through 
which the turning and 
trench plows have each 
passed, and the raising 
capacity of the latter is 
B nearly exhausted by the 
bank. By strenuous effort, 
| six inches more of depth 
might be accomplished, 
but not very satisfactorily. 
To enable the plow to 
gain nearly the requisite 
depth in this first trench, 
the bank, A, must be 
removed to the position 
represented at A, Fig. 2. 
This may be partially 
done with a plow, but 
must be completed with 
spades or shovels, when 
the depth represented by 
p, Fig. 3, may be easily 
gained, but it will be 
difficult to go deeper in 
the trench with any of 
the plows here represent- 
ed. The next proceeding 
in order is to turn over 
and throw down into the 
11 trench, p, a slice corn- 
er. 5 posed of the thickness of 




Fig. S. 




Fig. 4. 




134 



Report on Trials of Plows. 




the fertile stracum, and 
as wide as the trench, as 
represented at C. The 
next step is to raise a 
slice of the subsoil of any 
thickness required, not 
making greater depth 
than twenty-one inches, 
as shown at D. The dart 
marked eighteen inches, 
by error, should be 21. 
§ The representation in Fig. 
5 is of work done in ad- 
hesive loam, and shows 
Fiff- 7> rather the working of the 

plow than the exact appearance of the trench, that never being 
quite so clear and square after the passage of the plow, as is here 
represented. 

In very unadhesive, gravelly or sandy soils the appearance will 
be as represented in Fig. 6. Debris, as at H, occurs in gravels, 
consisting in part of the falling of the edge of the land side bank, 
and in part of the falling back of the subsoil slice. This is often 
in about the proportions required, and then only the passage of 
the transformed, with its peculiar grinding action is required to 
perfect the operation. If a larger admixture of the surface soil 
is required at the bottom of the trench, a small slice of it is easily 
thrown down by a small plow drawn by one horse before the 
passage of the transformed. 

It is, of course, impossible to leave as clean a furrow as is rep- 
resented in Fig. 7, as the ground from both sides will fall in and 
fill the furrow. It is rather intended to represent the actual 
working of the plow at the depth of two feet. These plows are 
worked with two pairs of strong oxen. 



Objects to be Accomplished by Plowing. 135 

CHAPTER VI. 

ON THE OBJECTS TO BE ACCOMPLISHED BY PLOWING. 

Before we can judge of the best form and arrangement of the 
plow, we must first clearly comprehend the objects sought to be 
accomplished by plowing land. 

In general we may say that we seek in plowing land to cause 
it to yield a greater amount of crops; but this general answer is 
insufficient for our purpose. We want to know why plowing the 
land makes it more fertile before we are in a position to know 
which of the various forms of the plow is best adapted to pro- 
mote the desired fertility. 

If we find that two or more forms of the plow are equally 
adapted to improve the condition of the land, the question then 
arises, which of them can be worked with the greatest economy? 
This question involves several elements. We are to inquire 
which of them can be worked with the least expenditure of 
animal power. It has been proved by the trials instituted by our 
own Society, by the Highland Society of Scotland, and by the 
Royal Agricultural Society of England, that some forms of the 
plow can open a given sized furrow with thirty per cent less of 
power than others, or what is nearly the same thing, two horses 
will do as much as three. It is easy to understand that the 
farmer using the one will find farming a remunerative occupation, 
while the farmer that uses the other will carry on his business at 
a loss. Another question which must be answered under this 
head of inquiry is, which of the plows will wear the longest? It 
is well known that there are great differences in this respect, some 
lasting five times as long as others. The points of many plowa 
now in market will only last for a single day. Again, some plows 
can be advantageously worked by much less skillful workmen 
than others, and, of course, unskilled laborers can always be 
obtained at a lower rate of compensation than the skilled classes. 
Finally, there are some plows which can be worked with far lesis 
labor by the operative, which is an advantage that no good 
farmer will overlook. The plow which combines with the lowest 
price the greatest number of these advantages is clearly to be 
taken as the cheapest plow. 



136 Report on Trials of Plows. 

Let us first endeavor to understand how the plow makes land 
more fertile. To accomplish this we must know what fertility is, 
and what causes it. 

All plants whatever have their origin in a minute germ whose 
weight is exceedingly small compared with the weight of the 
fully developed plant. The germ has no creative power what- 
ever; it can only assimilate other matter with its own substance, 
and the whole of the extra weight of the mature plant consists 
of foreign matter which, by a curious but not unintelligible 
chemistry, the germ has assimilated with its o\pi tissues and made 
a part of its own substance. 

The substances thus assimilated are numerous, varying in differ- 
ent plants, but all derived originally from the rains and dews, 
from the atmosphere and the soil. 

The compounds derived from air and water are called organic; 
those derived from the soil are called inorganic. Gum, sugar, 
and woody fibre are examples of the former; lime, potash, iron 
and saline matters are examples of the latter. 

The amount of inorganic matter in plants varies from one to 
twelve per cent of their whole weight, according to their differ- 
ent natures; 100 pounds of wheat contains 1.18 pounds of ash 
or inorganic matter; 100 pounds of rye contains 1.04 pounds; 100 
pounds of barley contains 2.35 pounds; 100 pounds of oats con- 
tains 2.58 pounds; 100 pounds of wheat straw contains 3.51 
pounds of ash; 100 pounds of rye straw contains 2.79 pounds; 
100 pounds of barley straw contains 5.24 pounds; 100 pounds 
of oat straw contains 5.74 pounds. 

If we have an acre of land which yields us 1,500 pounds of 
wheat and 2,000 pounds of straw, it has taken from the soil about 
eighty-eight pounds of mineral matter. 

An acre of land which bears a crop of oats, consisting of one 
ton of straw and forty bushels of grain, will abstract one hundred 
and fifty-six pounds of mineral matter from the soil. 

The mineral matter absorbed by growing plants does not exist 
in the soil in unlimited quantities, but in definite quantities that 
can be exactly ascertained if we resort to the proper methods of 
inquiry. When Ave have ascertained the absolute amount of 
mineral matters required by plants in the soil, if we divide the 
whole number of pounds of these matters in an acre of soil by 
eighty-eight, we shall know the exact number of crops of wheat 
that can be taken from an acre; and if we divide it by one hundred 



Objects to be Accomplished by Plowing. 137 

and fifty-six, we shall know the number of oat crops that can be 
taken. 

When this number of crops has been taken from the soil, it is 
evident that its capacity for producing wheat or oats is exhausted 
and can never be restored until the missing mineral is replaced 
from some foreign source. 

In practice, however, the soil becomes incapable of yielding 
either wheat or oats long before the supply of mineral matter is 
exhausted. A wheat plant, for instance, may absolutely starve 
for want of ammonia in a soil which an exact chemical analysis 
shows to be superabundant in ammonia, or it may perish for lack 
of phosphate of lime in a soil replete with that substance; or it 
may be unable to procure a due supply of silicic acid from a soil 
consisting of pure sand. 

Every farmer knows that if, after it appears to be exhausted of 
its mineral matter, the soil is allowed to rest, exposed to the action 
of frosts, rains, dews and sun-light, it will, after the lapse of a 
certain time, recover its fertility; the phosphate of lime, silicic 
acid and carbonate of potash, in which it seemed utterly deficient, 
have now been restored to it by the operation of its own internal 
processes, and not supplied to it from without. 

Again, it is found that, on many kinds of land, very small crops 
are obtained at the first plowing; but that, at every successive 
plowing, the crop increases. It would seem from this that plants 
increased in magnitude just in proportion to the diminution of the 
supply of food. 

An attentive examination of these apparent anomalies will lead 
us to a clear understanding of the causes of fertility in a soil. 

First — Soils may contain a superabundance of mineral matters, 
though they are so unevenly distributed that a larger part of the 
soil is so deficient in them that it may be absolutely barren. 
Thus, if we measure off ten square feet at one corner of an acre, 
and cover it thickly with lime, the opposite corner of the acre 
receives no benefit from the application; there is too much lime 
in one plat and none in the other. If the arable surfaces of the 
two - soils are mixed together, both will be benefited and both 
will be more fertile. Or we may suppose that a soil deficient in 
phosphate of lime has a bone buried in it. After a certain time 
it will be found that some of the phosphate of lime and gelatine, 
with its included nitrogen, is dissolved, and the particles of earth 
in contact with the bone are saturated with the solution, and 



138 Report on Trials of Plows. 

cannot take up any more. If we now remove the bone and bury 
it in unsaturated earth, another portion will be dissolved, and the 
soil contiguous to it will be saturated. We may thus, by suc- 
cessive removals and burials of the bone until it is wholly dissolved, 
render many times more soil fertile than if it had been left steadily 
in one place. There is no soil known through which the fertile 
matters are evenly diffused, and hence benefit must always result 
from mixing together the fertile and unfertile portions. 

This is one of the objects sought to be accomplished by plow- 
ing land; it is because the spade accomplishes this more perfectly 
than any form of plow yet known to us, that so much larger 
crops can be obtained when that method of tillage is used. 

Plows differ very widely in their power to mix soils together. 
Those which invert the furrow completely hardly mix it at all. 
Those which leave the furrow at an angle of 45 deg. mix it more 
intimately. Those which take a narrow furrow do it still more 
completely than those that take a broad one, and those that turn 
a furrow in two successive portions, as the sod and subsoil plow, 
intermingle the particles of the soil more perfectly than when it 
is turned in one mass. 

It is obvious, from these considerations, that by bringing into 
contact with each other the particles of soil which had previously 
been separated, we increase its fertility, and therefore those kinds 
of plows which accomplish this object most perfectly, other things 
being equal, are to receive the preference. 

Second — A very little reflection will satisfy a farmer that he 
may have abundant elements of fertility in his soil, yet he will 
derive no benefit from them, because they are locked up by aih'ni- 
ties which the rootlets of the plant cannot overcome. Thus, one 
ton of farm yard manure may be spread over a given area of soil. 
and one ton of coal spread over an equal contiguous area. The 
plants growing in the soil covered with manure will be abundantly 
supplied with ammonia, while those growing in the soil covered 
with the coal will receive none, and cease to grow in conse- 
quence. If now we ascertain by analysis the amount of ammonia 
contained in each, we find that one ton of the former contains 
17.4 pounds of ammonia, while a ton of the latter contains 47.(5 
pounds, or nearly three times as much as the manure contained. 

The important practical question, therefore, for the farmer to 
ask is, not how much plant nutriment is contained in his soil, but 



Objects to be Accomplishes by Plowing. 139 

how much is there which is in such & physical and chemical con- 
dition as to be available by the rootlets of the growing plant. 

As the success of the practical farmer depends almost entirely 
upon a knowledge of these principles, it will be necessary to give 
a brief explanation of them, especially as it is necessary to com- 
prehend them, if we are to attain to clear understanding of the 
theory of the plow. 

Mr. Way filled several glass vases, furnished with stop-cocks 
at the bottom, with dry soils of various kinds; he then poured 
into each of them the drainage water from a barn yard loaded 
with stercoraceous and saline matters which, after it had filtered 
through the soils, was drawn oil' through the stop-cock. That 
which had passed through the stiffest clay came off limpid and 
apparently pure, the taste being almost like that of rain water; 
that which passed through a very sandy soil was but slightly 
changed in taste or appearance. The power of a soil to absorb 
the manurial matters seemed to depend upon the relative amount 
of aluminous matter contained in it, those having the greatest 
abundance absorbing most, those having the greatest amount of 
sand having the least. It was, however, established beyond a 
doubt that all soils had a peculiar power of absorbing manurial 
matters, which could not be separated by the action of water or 
by any other way than by the absorbent action of the rootlets of 
a growing plant. 

Dr. Vcelcker has followed up these investigations with great 
assiduity and success. He saturated various kinds of soils with 
a solution of caustic ammonia, containing 23.24 grains of ammonia 
to the imperial gallon, and ascertained the amount of ammonia 
that was absorbed by each kind of soil. He thus found that 3,000 
grains of a calcereous clay absorbed 2,758 grains of ammonia 
from 14,000 grains of the solution. From the same quantity a 
fertile loamy soil abstracted 2,604 grains; 3,000 grains of a stiff 
clay soil absorbed 2,262 grains of ammonia; 3,000 grains of a 
sterile sandy soil retained 3,228 grains of the solution; 3,000 
grains of the soil of a rich pasture took up 1,728 grains of 
ammonia. 

He next agitated these soils, which had been saturated with 
ammonia water of the above mentioned strength, with a solution 
of ammonia, which was twice as strong as the preceding, and 
found that they now, curiously enough, absorbed very nearly 



140 Report on Trials of Plows. 

equal portions of ammonia. Thus, the total amount of ammonia 
absorbed by 1,000 grains of soil was, in the case of the 

1. Calcareous soil 1.5193 grains of ammonia. 

2. Fertile loamy soil 1.5363 " 

3. Clay soil 1.1240 " 

4. SterUe sandy soil 1.5220 " 

5. Pasture land 1.5217 " 

Dr. Vcelcker next proceeded to verify these results by repeat- 
ing the experiments in another form. He made four solutions of 
ammonia of varying degrees of strength, and used the same soil — 
a stiff calcareous clay — in all his experiments. 

Per 1,000 grains. 

Solution No. 1 contained 44.38 grains of ammonia per gallon, or. . .634 

No. 2 " 21.28 " " " . . .304 

No. 3 " 12 32 " " " .. .176 

No. 4 " 6.16 " " " . . :088 

The soil was saturated with each of these solutions, when it 

was found that 1.000 grains of the soil thus absorbed in 

No. 1 1.32 grains of ammonia. 

No 2 64 '• " 

No, 3 26 " 

No. 4 10 « 

These experiments show conclusively that all soils have the 
power of absorbing ammonia from its solutions; that no soil can 
abstract all the ammonia from a solution; that all soils can take 
up a greater relative amount of ammonia from strong than from 
weak solutions of ammonia; hence a soil which had absorbed as 
much ammonia as it would from a weak solution took up a fresh 
quantity of ammonia when it was brought into contact with a 
stronger solution. 

Dr. Vcelcker's experiments further showed that soils were 
equally disposed to appropriate ammonical salts as they were to 
absorb ammonia itself. 

He next endeavored to ascertain how far the soils were disposed 
to part with the ammonia thus absorbed to the rain water which 
percolates through them. In order to accomplish this, a quarter 
of a pound of a soil, saturated with ammonia, was well shaken in 
7,000 grains of distilled water. It was allowed to settle for three 
days, when the clear liquor was carefully decanted, and the 
amount of water contained in it exactly ascertained. The soil 
thus washed was again shaken in a well stoppered bottle with 
7,000 grains of fresh distilled water, and settled and decanted 



... .2-36 


grs. 


ammonia , 


... .642 


cc 


cc 


... .610 


cc 


cc 


... .622 


cc 


cc 


... .120 


cc 


cc 


... .193 


cc 


cc 


... ?28 


cc 


cc 



Objects to be Accomplished by Plowing. 141 

ns before. This was repeated seven times successively, with the 
following results: 

First washing, removed by 7,000 grains of water 

Second " " " " 

Third " " " 

Fourth " " " " " 

Fifth " " " " " 

Sixth " " " " 

Seventh " " " " 

Total ..2.651 " 

Thus we see that after seven successive washings with 7,000 
grains of water, or 49,000 grains of water in all, only 2.651 grains 
of ammonia was obtained from a quarter of a pound of soil. It 
had previously absorbed 4.655 grains of ammonia, and there were 
therefore 2.004 grains left in it after this very thorough washing. 

It is very clear from this experiment that the power of soils 
to remove ammonia from solutions is much greater than their 
property of yielding it again to water. 

Prof. Way discovered that soils not only possessed the power 
of separating ammonia, but likewise other bases from their solu- 
tions, and they held them after being so absorbed with very great 
tenacity. Thus, 100 grains of clay soil taken from the plastic 
clay formation in England absorbed 1.050 grains of potash from 
a solution of caustic potash containing one per cent of the alkali. 
It is interesting to observe that the liquid was not in this case 
filtered through the soil, but only left in contact with the cold 
solution for twelve hours. 

Prof. Way has further shown that soils have the ability to 
separate the alkaline bases from the acids with which they arc 
combined. He found that when saline solutions were slowly 
filtered through soils five or six inches deep, the liquids which 
passed through were deprived of their alkaline bases, as potash, 
soda, ammonia and magnesia, and. only the acids were to be found 
in combination with some other base. Thus when muriate of 
ammonia was filtered through the soil the ammonia was removed, 
and a corresponding quantity of lime in combination with muri- 
atic acid was found in the filtered liquid. In the same way 
sulphate of potash was deprived of its base, and the liquid col- 
lected gave sulphate of lime on analysis. 

Prof. Liebig has attempted to show that this power of soils 
which enables them thus to attract manurial substances from their 



142 Report on Trials of Plows. 

solutions is analogous to that by which charcoal separates coloring 
matters and odoriferous matters from their combinations. This is 
known to be partly mechanical and partly chemical. The chemi- 
cal force, like that which causes the solution of substances in 
water, is very weak; it attracts substances to itself, but does not 
produce any change whatever upon the character of the sub- 
stance. The coloring or the odorous matters are held in contact 
with the pores of the charcoal just as coloring matters adhere to 
the fibres of cotton or wool quite unchanged in their nature. 
Neither powdered pit coal nor the hard, glassy charcoal from 
sugar or blood have much power to attract coloring matters from 
their solutions, while porous blood or bone charcoal possesses this 
property in a very high degree, and among wood charcoals, those 
which have the greatest amount of capillary porosity. 

It is just so with soils, those which have the greatest amount 
of capillary porosity will condense the greatest amount of manu- 
rial substances on their internal surfaces; will retain them longest 
against the adverse solvent action of water, and will give them 
out most readily to the rootlets of the growing plant. A mass 
of adhesive clay will absorb but a very slight amount of available 
manure, but if this same mass is rendered friable by mechanical 
processes its power of absorption is amazingly increased. In 
view of what has been stated, it is very clear that plowing land 
increases its fertility in one way by increasing its porosity by 
pulverization. 

Again, many manurial substances exist in the soil which, being 
insoluble, exercise no action on the growth of plants, and con- 
tribute nothing to their nutrition; but by the slow, though regular 
action of the frosts and the rain, the air and the sunshine, these 
insoluble and refractory compounds are reduced to a soluble stale, 
which are appropriated and held in deposit by the soil to the 
credit of the next cultivated crop. This routine explains the 
avcII known fact that soils, which have been cropped to the very 
verge of barrenness, will recover their fertility if allowed to 
remain long enough under the action of these climatic influences 
to saturate the soil with the necessary plant food which they have 
unlocked from their chemical combinations and given to the soil 
in a proper physical condition. 

These changes arc brought about much more rapidly when 
certain mechanical changes of condition are wrought upon the 
soil. 



Objects to be Accomplished by Plowing. 143 

Carbonic acid is one of the most active of the agents employed 
in bringing the insoluble inorganic matter in the soil into that 
physical condition when they become available as plant food; in 
order that this acid may be formed, it is essential that the car- 
bonaceous matters in the soil should be brought into direct contact 
with the atmosphere from which they procure the oxygen neces- 
sary to convert them into carbonic acid. 

So long as stagnant water remains in the soil, or so long as it 
is in a dense and very compact condition, it is impossible for the 
carbon in the soil to be converted into acid. 

A supply of available phosphatic salts is essential for the 
growth of most cereal plants, but these salts often exist in great 
profusion in the soil without contributing in any way to the nutri- 
tion of plants, because they are in an insoluble condition. If 
now water charged with carbonic acid is allowed to circulate 
through the hard phosphatic nodules a portion of them will be 
dissolved by the acid and diffused by the water among the pores 
of the soil where they will be fixed in readiness for the demands 
of the growing plants. In this case we see another way that the 
fertility of the soil is increased by pulverization, because the air 
is admitted to the soil, which becomes the agent of converting: 
the carbon existing in it into carbonic acid, which in its turn ren- 
ders many substances which were previously useless very efficient 
in promoting the growth of plants. 

Mr. Way shows that the agents which exercise the greatest 
power in retaining manurial substances in physical combination 
with the soil are the double silicates, which we will endeavor to 
explain briefly, as their recent investigation has probably pre- 
vented a large proportion of the users of the plow from becoming 
fully acquainted with their properties. 

If pure sand or powdered quartz be fused with lime, alumina 
or some other alkali, they become chemically united, and are 
known as silicates. Thus, silica combined with potash is called 
silicate of potash; with ammonia, silicate of alumina, etc. These 
substances, under favorable circumstances, are very prone to unite 
together. Thus, silicate of alumina and silicate of lime are often 
found united together as one well marked substance having 
definite characters. These new compounds are called double 
silicates. They have the power, in a remarkable degree, of 
exchanging bases in a certain prescribed order. Thus, when the 
double silicate of alumina and soda is digested with a solution of 



144 Report on Trials of Plows. 

some lime salt, a new compound is formed, in which the soda is 
replaced by lime; in the same way the lime may be supplanted 
by magnesia, and the latter by potash. 

It is very instructive to observe that these successive replace- 
ments take place iu a regular and unvarying order, which Prof. 
Way has determined as follows: Soda, lime, magnesia, potash, 
ammonia. 

Thus, in the double silicate of alumina and soda, the soda may 
be replaced by lime, the lime by magnesia, the magnesia by 
potash, and the potash by ammonia; but this cannot take place in 
the reverse order. Ammonia will dispossess any of the articles 
which precede it on the list; but none of these, either singly or 
in combination, has the power to dispossess ammonia. The value 
of these double silicates is in the order in which they are placed 
above. The double silicate of soda is less valuable than the 
double silicate of lime; the double silicate of lime is less valu- 
able than the double silicate of magnesia; the double silicate of 
magnesia is less valuable than the double silicate of potash, and 
the latter is less valuable than the double silicate of ammonia. 
Thus we see the admirable provision of Divine Providence, that 
the more valuable compound shall always have the power of dis- 
placing the less valuable, while the inferior is restrained by 
impassible barriers from supplanting the superior compound. 

When we learn that the formation and the transformation of 
these double silicates from a lower degree into a higher one is 
greatly promoted by a porous condition of the soil, we see an 
additional reason for the thorough pulverization of the soil by 
the plow. 

The distance to which the roots of a plant will extend when 
there is no physical obstruction to their progress through the soil 
is for greater than is usually supposed by those who have not 
actually witnessed their extension. We have seen the roots of 
Indian eorn extending seven feet downward; the roots of lucerne 
will penetrate fifteen feet; onions will run downward three feet 
where the physical condition of the soil favors the extension of 
their range. It is obvious that, as the nutritive matters in the 
soil cannot travel to the root, the latter must therefore go to the 
former; and the farther the root extends, the greater the amount 
of food which the plant can obtain, and the greater must be its 
growth and nutritive capacity. The roots of plants always develop 
themselves in the direction of least resistance. If the roots of 



Objects 10 be Acgomplisheb by Plowing. 145 

a plant have a hard, impervious soil on their right and a porous 
soil on their left, the roots will all be directed from the right to 
the left. The growth of roots takes place by the addition of new 
cells to their outer extremities. The newly added cell must 
therefore push the earth before it by a force somewhat greater 
than the cohesive force of the soil which it penetrates. The force 
required for this purpose exhausts the vital force of the plant. A 
thoroughly porous soil therefore relieves this exhaustion and 
economizes the vital force which is then directed to some other 
point. Plants differ greatly in their power of forcing their roots 
into the soil. Wheat and barley both radicate feebly and will 
hardly enter a stiff soil, while buckwheat will penetrate it readily. 
The roots of quack grass (triticum repens) will force their way 
triumphantly through the stiffest clays, while the feebler roots of 
timothy (pkleum pratense) will scarcely penetrate them at all. 

Jethro Tull, to whom practical husbandry is so much indebted, 
ascertained the range of porous land required by each kind of 
plant in the following manner: 

In the midst of hard, impervious land he dug a trench twenty 
yards long, in the form of a truncated wedge, the transverse 
width of the narrow end being two feet, and the broad end being 
twelve feet wide. In the fine, loose earth of this trapezoid he 
planted along the middle line, at distances of one yard apart, the 
plants whose root range he desired to ascertain. The plant one 
yard from the narrow end was smaller than that which was two 
yards from it, and this latter was smaller than that which was 
three yards distant. When he found the point where the plants 
ceased to enlarge and remained of the same size until that which 
was nearest to the widest end, he believed that he had the meas- 
ure of the normal length of the root of that plant; thus when 
the trapezoid was planted with turnips each turnip was larger as 
it receded from the narrow end until the fifteenth, from thence to 
the twentieth the turnips were of equal size. Measuring laterally 
from the fifteenth turnip, he found that the range of loose soil 
was four feet, which he therefore concluded was the natural length 
of the turnip root. 

When the first settlers of Ohio bewail to cultivate the rich 
valley of the Scioto, they subjected it to a very imperfect and 
shallow cultivation; two or three inches was the utmost depth of 
the plowing, but such was the great natural fertility of the land 
Unit the crops of Indian corn averaged seventy bushels to the acre. 
10 



146 Report on Trials of Plows. 

Successive crops of corn have been annually taken from the soil 
ever since, but the average product has run down to about forty 
bushels to the acre. In the year 1862 a large field was plowed 
with the sod and subsoil plow to the full depth of eight inches. 
The result of this experiment was that the laud produced one hun- 
dred and twenty bushels to the acre, while the skim plowed land 
contiguous to it yielded but forty bushels. 

These facts show an additional answer to the question, " How 
does plowing increase the fertility of the soil ?" They tell us 
very clearly that it is by affording facilities to the extension of 
the roots, and thus extending the range of pasture for the plants. 

The answers already given by no means exhaust the question. 
There are still many important uses of plowing which are yet 
mi described. The germination of seeds requires seclusion from 
light; they must therefore be placed beneath the surface. They 
also require the presence of atmospheric air; without it the radicle 
will not enter the soil nor the plumule protrude into the air; nor 
will the starchy matters stored up in the cotyledons be trans- 
formed into sugar for the nourishment of the young plant. Pul- 
verization of the soil is therefore essential, that the seeds may be 
regularly secluded from the light; but in such a way that the air 
can penetrate very freely to them. These conditions are com- 
pletely fulfilled when the land is properly plowed. 

Stagnant water in the soil, by cutting off the access of air to 
the roots of plants, prevents their nutrition and consequently 
their growth. Deep plowing diminishes this evil by permitting 
the water to penetrate deeper into the ground. 

"Warmth of the surface soil is essential to the growth of crops. 
When water lies upon the surface, it is taken up again into the 
air by evaporation, which causes the absorption of an immense 
amount of sensible heat which it renders latent. The cooling of 
surfaces by evaporation is made practically familiar to as when- 
ever we wash our hands or wet our heads. Deep plowing and 
thorough pulverization, by permitting the water to sink into the 
ground, diminishes the amount of evaporation from the soil, and 
thus prevents the temperature of the surface from being lowered. 

The exhalation of moisture from plants into the air is very 
great. In the experiments very carefully made by Hales, he found 
that a sunflower three and a half feet high, with a superficial area 
of -Villi; square inches, perspired at the rate of from twenty to 
thirty ounces in twelve hours, or seventeen times more than a man 



Objects to be Accomplished by Plowing. 147 

would do under similar circumstances. A vine with twelve square 
feet of foliage exhaled at the rate of five or six ounces a day. An 
acre of Indian corn, having 1500 plants on an acre, would exhale 
about one ton of water in a day. If this moisture is supplied by 
the roots from the reservoirs of water in the ground as fast as it 
is exhaled, no mischief is done; on the contrary, the plant is 
benefited by the increased vital action which ensues. If, on the 
other hand, the supply from the ground is less than the amount 
evaporated, the plant withers and finally dies. 

Every farmer is familiar with the curling of the corn leaves 
when the evaporation is most rapid under the fierce heats and the 
blue skies of midsummer, especially when the surface is baked 
hard. He also knows that the true antidote to this condition is a 
thorough pulverization of the soil. When this is effected, the 
stores of moisture in the depths of the earth are pumped up by 
the capillary attraction of the interstices of the soil, and the 
balance between supply and demand is once more restored. 

Soil in a finely divided state radiates heat much more rapidly 
than when its surface is hard and baked; it will therefore cool 
more rapidly. Dew is deposited in the clear nights most copi- 
ously on those bodies which are relatively colder than the sur- 
rounding air. It follows from this, that when two contiguous 
acres of land are planted with an equal number of corn plants, 
they will both exhale the same amount of moisture from their 
leaves; but if the soil of one of the acres is thoroughly pulverized, 
and the other is hard baked, vastly more of the daily exhalation 
will be returned to the pulverized soil than to the hard one, on 
account of its superior radiant powers. The pulverized soil will 
thus be supplied with water at the expense of the other. 

No soil can produce maximum crops of any kind where the 
food of the desired kind of plant is taken up and appropriated 
by weeds. It is therefore one of the prime objects of agriculture 
to destroy them, and at the same time to utilize them so as to 
make them restore to the desired plant that nutriment of which 
they have already robbed it. Other things being equal, that plow 
is best which most completely buries the weeds growing on the 
surface and secures their decomposition, so that the roots of the 
growing plant can avail themselves of the food stowed away in 
the cells of the weeds. 

We have now completed the task we proposed to ourselves, by 
showing all the objects which it is proposed to accomplish by the 



148 Report on Trials of Plows. 

use of the plow in order that we may be enabled to ascertain 
what form of the plow is most likely to secure the ends which 
we have iu view. They are: 

First — To pulverize the soil with a view to promote those chem- 
ical transformations which will unlock the food of plants from its 
combinations with unassimilable elements and put it into such a phy- 
sical condition as will make it accessible to the rootlets of the plant. 

Second — To pulverize it with a view to facilitate the formation 
of the double silicates. 

Third — That the roots may freely permeate the soil in all 
directions, thus increasing the range of their pasture. 

fourth — To promote the germination of seeds. 

Fifth — To get clear of stagnant water from the surface. 

Sixth — To prevent the refrigeration of the soil by evaporation. 

Seventh — To secure the return of the w T ater evaporated b}^ the 
plant in the form of dew. 

Eighth — To destroy the weeds in the soil. 

Ninth — To utilize them and convert them into food for plants. 

All plows known to us press downward upon the subsoil with 
a weight proportioned to the depth of the furrow slice and the 
density. This downward action combined with the sliding action 
of the shares has a necessary tendency to pack the subsoil and to 
polish the surface. This effect is cumulative, and every succes- 
sive plowing increases the evil until the bottom of the furrow 
becomes so dense that neither rain nor air nor the roots of plants 
can possibly penetrate beneath it. The spade avoids this diffi- 
culty. Hence, other things being equal, a plow which leaves the 
bottom of the furrow in the same state in which the spade leaves 
it would have a very decided preference. 

Guided by the principles which we have now so fully explained, 
we have drawn up a series of practical directions which will bo 
found inserted in the Programme, page 3, under the head of 
"Duties of Judges," which, if they have been fully carried out in 
the spirit in which they Avere devised, we believe will settle con- 
clusively nearly all the questions in practical plowing which have 
heretofore been left undetermined. 

We have not sought to give a complete and exhaustive enumera- 
tion of all the objects which the plow is designed to accomplish, 
such as the mellowing of the soil by frost and the destruction of 
insects, Dili only those which involve the peculiar form of the 
the plow and the principles of its construction. 



Practical Questions in Plows and Plowing. 149 
CHAPTER VII. 

ON SOME OF THE PRACTICAL QUESTIONS IN PLOWS AND PLOWING. 

PULVERIZATION. 

As stated in our chapter "On the objects to be accomplished 
by plowing," our convictions are strong that the primary object 
of the process is to mellow the ground by direct pulverization. 
We have never seen this stated as desirable in any of the English 
books or periodicals to which w T e have had access.* They all 
design to effect the pulverization of the soil mediately by plow- 
ing, but they always expect to effect it immediately through the 
harrow. They must first turn over the soil, laying it in sharp and 
well defined ridges, mathematically parallel to each other. But 
this darling sharpness of ridge cannot be obtained unless the slice 
is turned over with the least possible disturbance of the relations 
of its particles with each other; hence a structure which would 
effectually pulverize the soil and injure the sharpness of the crest 
would so offend the superstitious prejudices of English plowmen 
that not one could be sold in any of the markets of the kingdom. 

This superstition was transmitted to America, and until very 
recently the lines of American plows have been formed on 
English principles. The importance of thorough pulverization 
was recognized by American farmers at a much earlier period 
than it was in England; but as they had not thoroughly studied 
the relations of the lines of the plow to the comminution of the 
furrow slice, they were unable to realize their ideal of perfection 
in practice. 

Let us suppose a series of sheets of pasteboard to be superim- 
posed as at A, Fig. 74. It will be seen that the edges, a b, are 
in a straight line, at right angles to the line c a. If we now press 
a thumb on d, and, with the other hand, raise up the corners of 
the sheets at b, the edges of the sheets will no longer be in a line 
at right angles with the line of the upper sheet, but the upper 
sheets will have advanced beyond the lower ones. Before the 

* Perhaps we should except "Talpa" from this remark, hut the author of that work 
did not expect to pulverize the soil by a plow, but with some instrument which should 
throw out the earth like a woodchuck. 



150 Report on Trials of Plows. 

flexure, the edge b, touched the dotted liue at e; it is now sep- 
arated from it by the space b e, and each successive sheet is seen 
to be in advance of the one beneath it. To produce this successive 
advancement of the upper sheets, each must have moved over the 
surface of the other. Every plowman* knows that the furrow 
slice has a certain amount of elasticity, that is, the parts may be 
displaced to a certain extent, and then, on the removal of the 
displacing forces, they will return to their former position. This 
elasticity varies with the nature of soil. In some the slightest 
displacement will cause a permanent disruption; in others it will 
stretch considerably before disruption takes place. The bending 
A 2l u P warc l> as shown in the figure, is pre- 

s^^-^sgs gjj gggg ^ cisely what is done by the plow, the 

^^s^i t." W point of the plow being directly beneath 

d, and the point, b, resting on the 
cl mould-board a little to the right of the 
t ^*^00 ;|6 shin. Let us suppose that the soil of 
^^tjgUI Woi tne furrow slice, E ^s the most elastic, 

BBBJpf^^ and that the distance, b e, is just suffi- 

Fig. 76. cient to overcome that elasticity, then 

it is evident that every soil whatever will be split horizontally 
into flakes at its lower edge by a plow having that elevation. We 
say at its lower edge because, as the upper edge does not move 
through a space equal to b e, and as that is the precise point 
where the elasticity of the slice is overcome, any less motion will 
fail to split the layers. It follows, from this reasoning, that every 
kind of soil should have a mould-board specially adapted to it. if 
we would obtain the greatest economy of power, because the 
more blunt is the entering wedge, the greater will be the draught; 
and it would be uneconomical to use an entering wedge sufficiently 
blunt to flake up a stiff clay for a light loam where a much more 
acute angle will suffice. Still, if economy of power is not an 
object, a plow which will separate the most tenacious soils longi- 
tudinally will be sufficient for all soils that are less so. 

Our objecl is, as we have said, to pulverize the soil; but split- 
ting it longitudinally is not pulverizing it. To accomplish this 
object we must split it in other directions. Jethro Tull, as we 
have stated, invented a plow with four coulters, figured in Plate 
I, which made four vertical sections through the slice. This can 

• Seo Tail's remarks, page is. 



Practical Questions in Plows and Plowing. 



151 



be better done by a proper twist. If the furrow slice is twisted 
with a force insufficient to overcome its cohesion it will assume 
the form (Fig. 75) represented in section at B. The radius, a b, 




Fig. 75. 
is shorter than a c, hence the arc at b is smaller than that at c; but 
the lines before flexure were equal in length, therefore while the 
inner circle, h b i, forms a complete semicircle the outer line, 
fed, falls short of being a semicircle by the distances d e eaidgf, 
and the lines d i and f h, which were before parallel with each 
other, now when bent into the curve form an acute angle. Sup- 
pose the twist is increased until the force of cohesion is over- 
come, the section now breaks asunder as at b c d, &c, the fracture 
being greatest at the outer circle and growing smaller as it 
approaches the inner one; the edges f h and i d are again parallel, 
and are .in fact in the same straight line. We have thus accom- 
plished by a twist applied at the right point all and more than 
Tull accomplished by his four coulters. 

We have now, as shown in the furrow slice, Fig, 76, by a proper 
^ b adjustment of the enter- 

ing wedge of the plow, 
6=jjj split it into layers on 
the face, c d, the fissures 
Jf-iff. 76. running through to the 

opposite face, and also by a proper arrangement of the twist we 
have split it on the face, a b, through to the bottom. These 
fissures are seen crossing each other at right angles on the 
end, a c. 

By a proper adjustment of the wing of the mould-board we 
may break the slice in still another direction. Suppose the wing 
of the mould-board were to be turned at right angles to the 
direction of the ascending slice, as in Fig. 77. Then the ascend- 
ing slice, e d f c, would be compelled to change its direction 
from the line e d to the line a b; but to accomplish this the 
particle of earth at d would move through the arc b d, while 
the particle at f would only move round the centre. Now it is 
evident that since each particle in the dotted line fd is moving 




152 



Report on Trials of Plows. 




Fig. 77. 



with a different velocity the continuity of the Ymefd will be bro- 
ken, and a fracture will occur at the point f represented by ofd, 
and it is also evident that every successive line of the slice e dfc 
g^ l will be subject to a similar 

fracture on passing the point 
j f. It is, however, unneces- 
sary to have so large a frac- 
ture; as the slightest fissure 
is all that is required, we 
may therefore very greatly 
diminish the angle of the ^/ 

wing with a great saving of Fig. 78. 
the power required, as at Fig. 78, where b f d, the angle of 
fracture, is seen to be very greatly reduced, although the actual 
pulverization is quite as well performed as it was with the much 
larger angle, b f d, in Fig. 77. 

We have now, in addition to the longitudinal fissures shown in 
Fig. 74, on the sides, a b and c d, another series of transverse 
fractures across the face, c d, Figs. 75 and 77, made by the lines 
of the plow, which must necessarily break up the slice into fine 
particles, which will 
admit air and moist- 
ure, and facilitate the 
chemical transforma- 
tions in the soil which 
we have shown to be 
so essential for the de- 
velopment of its latent e 
fertility. 

It is shown in the 
History of the Plow, 
which we have at- 
tempted to sketch, that the efforts of all the inventors who 
have applied their skill to the improvement of the mould- 
board, have been directed to the formation of a perfectly curved 
or twisted wedge which should be entirely regular in its form- 
ation, that is. that the third line should depart from the plane 
of the second precisely as far as the second does from the 
plane of the first, and that the fourth should depart from 
the third precisely as much as the third does from the second, 
ami so on. This is especially true el' (he plows which are 




If iff. 79. 



Practical Questions in Plows and Plowing. 153 

avowedly formed on mathematical principles, as Jefferson's, Ste- 
phens', Eham's and Knox's. Indeed, their object in invoking the 
aid of mathematical principles was to insure this perfect regu- 
larity in the twist of the mould-board. 

If we are correct in the principles laid down above, the makers 
of plows have been in error with regard to the desirableness 
of a uniform twist in the mould-board. We grant that where 
economy of power is the sole object, the twist must be regular 
and gentle; but where the primary object is to mellow the soil, 
then irregularity in the lines becomes indispensable. 

We have shown that, in order to secure thorough pulverization, 
the surface of the mould-board must be adapted to fracture the 
slice in three several directions. It is therefore plain that there 
must be three points, at least, where the twist must be intensified 
so as to insure the desired result, and at these points, at least, the 
regularity of the curve must be interrupted, so as to overcome the 
maximum elasticity of the soil. 

The conclusion to which these views lead us is, that the best 
plow must have irregular lines of curvature to an extent which 
will insure the fracture of the furrow slice in three directions; 
but tha irregularity should never be greater than will accomplish 
this result, as all excess will be a waste of power. 

We have spoken repeatedly of the elasticity of the earth of 
which the furrow slice is composed, especially when its surface is 
•covered with a tough sod. In order to measure the extent of 
this elasticity we inserted two w r ooden wedges, a and b (Fig. 79), 
at right angles to the land side of the furrow; when the plow, 
which w r as running twelve inches deep, came up with them at the 
zero line, the wedges ceased to be at right angles with the land 
side, but made an acute angle Avith it, and the wedge a! was seven 
inches in one instance in advance of the wedge b\ and this was 
the measure of the elasticity of the slice, as the two wedges 
resumed their former relative positions when the furrow was 
completely turned over. There is considerable difficulty in 
making the experiment, as the slice is generally broken before it 
arrives at the zero line. We repeated it many times unsuccess- 
fully. We found the stretch of the land side of the furrow twice 
to be six inches, and only once did it cohere until it was stretched 
seven inches. 



154 Report on Trials of Plows. 

on the draught of plows. 

Ill our inquiries respecting plows, their draught, or the power, 
which must be applied in order to enable them to perform the 
work required of them, is an element of the greatest interest, and 
our inquiries naturally resolve themselves into the following 
questions: 

First — What power is required to plow a furrow of a given 
size with the same plow in soils differing in their cohesive proper- 
tics? 

Second — What is the power required to draw different plows 
through the same soil with furrows of equal size? 

Third — What proportion of the power required by a plow is 
used by the sole? What by the land side? What by the share? 
What by the coulter? What by the mould-board? 

Fourth — Does the wheel add to or diminish the draught of the 
plow? 

Fifth — Does increased speed produce an increase of traction, 
and if so, in what proportion? 

It was our intention to have answered all these questions In- 
varied and frequently repeated experiments, but when we were 
ready to enter upon this branch of the investigation, we found 
that the Express company, in consequence of a misunderstanding 
of their instructions, had shipped the d} T namometer, and we were 
therefore unable to carry out our intentions. A few experiments 
were, however, made which we shall report in this connection. 
We would, however, in view of the great importance of the sub- 
ject, strongly recommend to the Executive Committee of the 
Society to carry out these experiments next spring in the most 
thorough and satisfactory manner. 

Such trials as have been made by various experimenters at 
different times and in various places which have come to our 
knowledge we have brought together here for the information of 

O DO 

hose who are interested in such subjects. 

The most instructive series of experiments on these points 
which have been made hitherto are those of Mr. Pusey, which 
are detailed in the first volume of the Journal of the Royal 
Agricultural Society. The following experiments give some 
approximations to an answer to the first question, viz: "What 
power is required to plow a furrow of a given size, with the Bame 
plow, in soils differing in their cohesive properties?'' Fergusson's 
swing plow, taking a furrow live inches deep and nine inches 



Practical Questions in Plows and Plowing. 



155 



wide, showed a draught in a sandy loam of 266 pounds; a loamy 
sand, 266 pounds; a moory soil, 322 pounds — increase, 21 per 
cent; a strong loam, 490 pounds — increase, 84 per cent; a blue 
clay, 700 pounds — increase, 163 per cent. 

In our trials, Collins & Co.'s steel plows, with a furrow twelve 
inches wide and twelve inches deep, showed a draught in an 
indurated clay soil, mixed with coarse gravel, of 613 pounds; 
an unctuous tough clay of 705 pounds, the increase being 15 per 
cent. Holbrook's plow, taking the same furrow, and in the same 
soil, showed a draught in clay and gravel of 615 pounds; unctuous 
clay of 671 pounds; difference 9 per cent. 

From these data it is obvious that the draught of plows taken 
in different soils cannot be compared with each other since the 
difference in the power required to overcome their cohesion has, 
by actual trial been found to extend to one hundred and sixty- 
three per cent, and it is quite probable that future trials may 
disclose even wider differences than this. 

In answer to our second question, " What is the power required 
to draw different plows through the same soil, with furrows of 
equal size, we have the following experiments by Mr. Pusey. 
The furrow was five inches by nine inches: 



PLOWS. 


a 

cS 

o 

a 

m 


>> 

a 

s 


'*6 

CO 
>> 

a 

e3 
O 
1-1 


a 

o 

6X) 
S3 

o 
s- 
-u 
02 


°o 

CO 

!>■> 
m 
o 
o 


60 

5 
<3 


ce 

03 
O 

a 

U 

Cm 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 




266 
280 
196 
196 
252 
252 
238 
238 
322 
252 


700 
728 
602 
602 
616 
672 
602 
700 
728 


266 
238 
168 
182 
224 
210 
238 
224 
294 


490 
462 
322 
462 
420 
378 
420 
504 
504 


322 
322 
224 
196 
294 
266 
252 
294 
350 


406 
406 
201 
329 
364 
350 
350 
392 
441 


34 
34 

"9" 

21 
16 
16 
30 
46 


Hart's Berkshire one-wheel. . . 






Rutland Ransom two-wheel. . . 
Holkham plow, two wheels . . . 













250 


661 


227 


440 


280 


371 


23 





We learn from this table that there is a difference between 
plows in the same soil, and with equal furrows of forty-six per 
cent in the extreme case of the Old Berkshire as compared. with 
Hart's one wheel Berkshire, while the average difference in the 
draught of nine plows was Lwenly-three per cent. 



156 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



The column headed "Per cent of averages" is intended to show 
the excess per cent of the average draught of each plow in the 
five different soils over the draught of Hart's one wheel Berk- 
shire, as for instance Ransom's F F two wheel plow required on 
an average in all the soils nine per cent more power than Hart's, 
&c. In order to make this point still more intelligible, we have 
calculated the following table, showing the excess of power per 
cent required for each plow over Hart's as shown in each kind of 
soil: 



PLOWS. 


cS O 


Wo 


O ra 
*1 ^ 


N 






00 
00 
21 
21 
36 
43 
28 
28 
64 


00 
00 
00 
16 
16 
21 

Us 

21 


00 
81 
41f 
33* 
58* 
411 
33* 
25 
75 


00 

43 £ 

30k 

56A 

52 

43 £ 

S0h 

17| 

56£ 


14* 

00 

28 i 

50 

64] 

64* 

50 

354 

78£ 




















28 


91 


35 


37 


23i 

1 





This table will be found an exceedingly instructive one, which 
we urgently advise every farmer and plowmaker to study with 
profound attention. It shows that in a sandy loam the difference 
between the minimum draught (Hart's and Ransom's F F) and 
the maximum (old Berkshire) amounts to sixty-four per cent. 
Two horses would thus draw Hart's plow with much greater ease 
than three horses would draw the Old Berkshire. In the loamy 
sand the excess is still greater; the latter plow would require three 
and a half horses to do the work that the other would do with 
two. Alderman Mechi estimates the cost of keeping a horse in 
England for one year at £39 ($195), and it is no less in this 
country. If this estimate is correct, a farmer would save at the 
rate of $292.50 a year by using the lighter instead of the heavier 
plow. An examination of the other columns of per ceutagea 
will show the saving which will be effected by the use of each. 
The table also shows how greatly the economy of cultivation is 
affected by cohesive soils. The average draught of all the plows 
in the sandy loam is 250 pounds, while the average draught in 
blue clay is 661 pounds; hence, -while the fanner on the sandy 
loam is compelled to pay 8195 for his power, the farmer on the 
stiff clay must pay $515 for cultivating the same area. 



Practical Questions in Plows and Plowing. 



157 



The table also shows in a very striking manner how necessary- 
it is that plows should be specially adapted to the soils in which 
they are intended to work. Thus Hart's plow works the easiest 
in all soils except the moory soil, in which Ransom's F F excells 
it by fourteen and one-third per cent, while in the strong loam 
Hart exceeds Ransom by forty-three and a half per cent, and 
loamy sand by eight and one-third per cent. Ransom's Rutland 
excels Farguson's Swing by fifteen per cent in sandy loam, while 
in strong loams Ferguson excels Ransom by four and a half per 
cent. This question of the adaptation of plows to different soils 
and situations has been too much overlooked even by intelligent 
farmers, and it shows very clearly that the plow for "all kinds 
of work," which so many of them are looking and longing for, 
will never be devised by the ingenuity of man. If a farmer 
desires perfect work the plow to accomplish it must be made 
expressly for the soil and the conditions of the work, and if he 
uses any other kind he must pay the penalty in a waste of power 
and an imperfection in the work. 

A series of experiments having for their object an answer to 
the question we are discussing, was made by Mr. J. C. Morton, and 
given in his Encyclopedia of Agriculture. The ground was a 
deep, silicious loam, above the quartoze conglomerate of the old 
red sandstone formation, and was of a uniform texture. The 
results of the dynamometer were taken with a self recording 
arrangement, and every care was taken to obtain perfectly correct 
results. The size of the furrow was in all cases six inches by 
nine inches. 



PLOWS. 


Pounds. 


Per cent. 


Wilkie's 


581 
644 
560 
478 
567 


22 
35 
17 
00 
18 






Barrett & Exall's DP 










566 


18 


j 



In these experiments the same difference appears between the 
draught of plows in the same soil and with a furrow of the same 
size, as was disclosed in Mr. Pusey's experiments, but it is not so 
great in amount, the draught of the heaviest exceeding that of the 



158 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



lightest by thirty-five per cent, and the average of the five by 
eighteen per cent. 

The trials made by this Society in 1850 were on stubble land, 
the soil being a stiff loam inclining to clay, mingled with stones 
of various sizes, near Greenbush. The following table shows the 
differences in the draught of the plows tried at that time: 



PLOWS. 



Pounds. 



Per cent. 



Wilkie's Scotch, A. Fleck 

Subsoil and sod, French & Smith 

Washington Co., Iron Beam, D. Eddy & Co 

John Randerson's 

Miner & Horton's, Peekskill 

Starbuck & Co., Trojan 

P. Auld, Improved Scotch 

Prouty & Mears, Centre Draft, No. b\ 

Bosworth, Rich & Co., Iron Beam, D 

R. R. Tench & Co., Empire, A3 

H. L. Emery, Albany 

W. W. Chase, Amsterdam, No 6 

E. J. Burrall, Shell-wheel 

Prouty & Mears, Connecticut Valley 

Average 



487 


42 


406 


19 


439 


28 


342 


00 


363 


6 


379 


11 


373 


9 


383 


12 


425 


24 


456 


33 


427 


24 


343 


3 


350 


2 


525 


53 



407 



19 



The furrow slice in the above trials was seven inches by ten 
inches. 

In this series of experiments we find the difference between 
the heaviest and the lightest plow is equal to fifty-three per cent, 
and the difference between the lightest plow and the average 
draught of them all was nineteen per cent. 

Summing up tli3 results of the three sets of experiments, we 
have : 

Mr. Pusey's Experiments — Maximum difference, 78.^ per cent; 
average difference, 23| per cent. 

Mr. Morton's Experiments — Maximum difference, 35 per cent; 
average difference, 18 per cent. 

New York State Agricultural Society's Experiments — Maximum 
difference, 53 per cent; average difference, 19 per cent. 

Average of the three experiments — Maximum difference, 55£ 
per cent; average difference, 20 per cent. 

Which ma}- be taken as the best answer that can yet be given 
to the second question. 

The third question which we have proposed is, " What propor- 
tion of the power required by a plow is used by the sole? What 



Practical Questions in Plows and Plowing. 



159 



by the land side? What by the share? What by the coulter? 
What by the mould-board?" 

The first question is answered by Mr. Pusey's experiments, as 
follows : 



PLOWS. 



Surface 
draught 



lbs. 



Weight 
of plow. 



lbs. 



Fergusson's Swing 
Clark's Swing . . . 
Hart's Wheel.... 

FF Wheel 

F F Swing 

King's Swing. . . . 
King's Wheel .... 
Old Berks' Wheel 
Rutland Wheel. . . 

Average 



168 
168 

42 
112 
140 
112 

84 
112 
112 



180 
180 
168 
179 
147 
112 
140 



210 



117 



164 



The average draft of these plows working in strong loam, and 
with a furrow of five inches by nine inches, was, as we have seen, 
440 pounds. Hence the ratio of the power consumed by the 
friction of the sole to the whole power is as 1: 3.76. 

We have met with no experiments having for their object the 
determination of the friction of the land side separately from the 
other portions of the plow. 

The only experiments known to us on the influence of the share 
on draught are those of Mr. Morton, which, although they do 
not give a complete answer to our question, are sufficient to show 
that this part of the plow exercises a very important influence 
upon the action of it. The draught of Ferguson's Swing plow, 
with a share ten inches wide, was 630 pounds, while the same 
plow, with a share six inches wide, drew only 560 pounds. In 
the former case the whole of the lower portion of the furrow was 
cut off; in the latter case four inches on the right side of the 
furrow were uncut, and were torn, off by the wedge of the share 
and mould-board. The experiment shows that the cutting of 
these four inches and the increased friction of the wider share 
increased the power required to the extent of twelve per cent. 

The experiments of Mr. Stephens seemed to show that it 
required exactly the same power to draw a coulter through the 
ground as it did to draw the plow without a coulter; but this 
experiment needs verification. 



160 Report on Trials of Plows. 

According to Mr. Morton's experiments the whole draught of 
the plow is 476 pounds; the removal of the mould-board dimin- 
ishes this only to 434 pounds; in other words, only ten per cent 
of the whole draught is caused by the turning of the furrow 
slice. The draught of the plow running along the open furrow 
was 168 pounds, which, being subtracted from 434 pounds, the 
draught without the mould-board, leaves 266 pounds as the 
draught required for the cutting of the furrow slice. Should this 
division of the draught hold generally true, we may infer that 
the labor of plowing may be distributed as follows: Thirty-five 
per cent for the weight of the implement; fifty-five per cent to 
cutting of the furrow slice, and only ten per cent to the action. 

This conclusion, if correct, will change the former current of 
opinion to a very great extent. Great labor has been expended 
upon the mould-board, upon the hypothesis that the draught 
depends to a very great extent upon its shape, but it will be 
seen that the share, the coulter, and the weight of the plow are 
far more promising points for its improvement than the mould- 
board. 

The effect of the friction of the sole upon the draught has been 
known to plowmakers for a long time, and many attempts have 
been made to diminish it by the addition of a large wheel near 
the heel, in such a position that the plow nearly balances over it, 
and by the introduction of friction wheels on the land side. At 
the trial at Albany in 1850, Mr. Burrall exhibited a plow with one 
of these wheels. At first its draught was very light, though not 
as much so as some of the plows which were not furnished with 
this appliance, but after working some time the wheel became 
clogged by the loose earth, and it then became decidedly heavier 
than those which were formed in the usual manner. 

Another experiment which was tried by Mr. Pusey, with a view 
of determining the ratio of the draught to the depth of the 
plowing, maybe usefully stated in this connection. 

The experiment was made on a free, brown loamy sand of a 
good quality, without stone, gravel or clod, resting on a pure, 
yellow sand on the coral sag formation. The results are given in 
the following table: 



Practical Questions in Plows and Plowing. 



161 



PLOWS. 


Furrow, 
4 by 9 in. 


Furrow, 
5 by 9 in. 


Furrow, 
6 by 9 in. 


Furrow, 
7 by 9 in. 




252 
238 
154 
168 
224 
210 
224 
224 
294 


266 
238 
168 
182 
224 
210 
238 
224 
294 


266 
252 
224 
252 
252 
252 
294 
252 
336 


308 
294 
252 
294 
294 
280 
322 
280 
434 






















221 


227 


264 


306 





The increased average draught of the first inch is 2.71 per 
cent; of the second inch, 16.29 per cent, and of the third, 15.91 
per cent. Average, 11.63 per cent. 

Mr. Pusey made a second experiment to determine this point a 
few days afterwards upon a poor, moory soil, with Ferguson's 
Scotch plow, with the following results: 



Furrow, nine incites ivide. 



FURROW— Depth in inches. 



o. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 



Average . 



Draught 
in lbs. 



Increase, 
percent. 



322 
308 
350 
420 
434 
560 
700 
700 



474 



8.70 
20.00 

3.33 
29.03 
25.00 



12.29 



The experiments on this point made by Mr. Morton are given 
in the following table: 





Furrow, nine inches wide. 






FURROW. 


Fergusson . 


Beverstone.Barrowman . 


Barrett. 


Average 
pounds. 


Depth in inches. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


4 


462 
560 
840 


378 
476 
896 


574 
644 
854 


354 
560 


442 
560 
863 


6 


«i 






621 


583 


690 


457 


621 



11 



162 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



Increase. 



PLOWS. 



Between , Between 
4 and 6 in. i 6 and 83 in 



Per cent. I Per cent. 



Average 
per cent. 



Of Fergusson's . . 
Of Beverstone's . 
Of Barrowman's . 
Of Barrett's 



Average 



21.21 

25.92 
12.19 
58.18 



29.37 



50.00 
88.23 
32.61 



35.50 
57.07 
22.40 
58.18 



56.94 



43.31 



The average increase of power for each inch in depth of Fer- 
guson's plow was 7.90 per cent, or 84 pounds; Beverstone's plow 
was 12.68 per cent, or 115 pounds; Barrowman's plow was 4.98 
per cent, or 62 pounds; Barrett's plow was 12.92 per cent, or 103 
pounds. Average, 9.62 per cent, or 91 pounds. 

Our own experiments on this point were very meagre, on 
account of the mistake in sending off the dynamometer heretofore 
alluded to, but as the subject is of so much importance we give 
them here. The experiment was made in a very hard soil, with 
gravel indurated in the clay, and all the plowing was deeper than 
any previous plowing, so that in each case the plow went into 
soil which had never been disturbed before. The plow used was 
Holbrook's No. 100; furrow ten inches wide. At 8^ inches deep, 
659 pounds; at 10^ inches deep, 753 pounds — increase, 94 pounds; 
at 12^ inches deep, 801 pounds — increase, 48 pounds. The aver- 
age increase of power for each inch of depth in this case is 35 
pounds, or 5.38 per cent. 

We can most fully corroborate the correctness of Mr. Pusey'a 
remark, that this is a very difficult experiment to make. It is 
hard to preserve the exact depth of one inch more or less; some- 
times it will run up or down considerably more than an inch. 
Sometimes when plowing at a given depth the share will encounter 
a mass of roots which resist very greatly, while in plowing an 
inch deeper we do not encounter these obstacles, and the plow at 
that depth does not appear to draw as heavily as it did when 
plowing an inch shallower. Owing to these inequalities in the 
texture of the soil at different depths, we need not expect to meet 
with any very regular law of progression in the draught in the 
indications of any particular table; but by having recourse to 
averages, the indications of a uniform law of increase begin to 
develop themselves sufficiently to assure us thai when a sufficient 



Practical Questions in Plows and Plowing. 163 

number of experiments shall have been carefully made we may 
ascertain the law nearly enough for all practical purposes. The 
average increase of draught per inch in Mr. Pusey's experiments 
was 12.29 per cent. In Mr. Morton's experiments it was 9.62 per 
cent, and in our own experiments it was 5.38 per cent. The 
average of all these is 9.09, say in round numbers, ten per cent 
of increase in draught for each additional inch depth of furrow 
between the limits of four and twelve inches. 

If this conclusion approximates to correctness it appears that 
the draught increases in proportion to the depth much less rap- 
idly than has been heretofore supposed. Mr. Pusey says that it 
has been laid down in our books that the draught increases as the 
squares of the depth; that is to say, that if the draught at four 
inches be 252 pounds, at seven inches.it will be as 49 to 16, or 
756 pounds, whereas experiment shows that on an average it is 
only 308 pounds, or less than half that amount. 

It must not be forgotten that both theory and experiment show 
that plows made expressly for deep tillage will work relatively 
lighter in a deep furrow than in a shallow one. Thus a plow 
made expressly for a four inch furrow compared with one made 
for a twelve inch furrow will work in the furrow it was designed 
for with much less draught than a deep plow; but if the four 
inch plow is made to take a furrow ten inches deep, the plow 
designed for twelve inches will be found to require much less 
draught. This fact should never be lost sight of in trials of this 
kind. 

We know of no experiments made with a view to determine 
the ratio of power required to turn over furrow slices of differ- 
ent breadths while the depth remains uniform. 

There is another point upon which Mr. Pusey's experiments 
throw mueh light, and which led to conclusions very different 
from those which have been generally entertained. It has been 
generally supposed that the power required to draw a plow 
increased as the square of the velocity, but experiments show that 
this is not the case. 

Mr. Pusey made repeated trials in order to settle this point 
under a great variety of circumstances. The first trial was in the 
moory ground mentioned in preceding tables, and with Clark's 
plow. The horses were made to walk as slowly as possible, and 
the draught was found to be 336 pounds in a five inch furrow. 
The horses were now urged forward at their highest rate of speed, 



164 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



and the draught was 350 pounds, which is only 14 pounds more 
than when they were walking slowly. 

A second trial was had in an adhesive loam, in so bad a condition 
that the polished mould-board was completely encrusted with earth. 
Hart's plow was selected for the experiment, and one hundred 
and ten yards, or one-sixteenth of a mile, were accurately meas- 
ured off. At the first trial the horses traveled the distance in 
two minutes and forty seconds, beiug at the rate of one and a 
half miles in an hour. The dynamometer showed a draft of 322 
pounds, the furrow being four inches by nine inches. At the 
second trial the distance was done in two minutes and twenty-five 
seconds, being at the rate of one and three-quarter miles in an 
hour. The furrow was of the same size, and the draught was 
still 322 pounds as before. At the next trial the rate was one 
minute and forty seconds, which is at the rate of two and three- 
quarter miles in an hour; the draft, from some cause, was reduced 
instead of being increased, and stood at 308 pouuds. Finally the 
distance was accomplished in one minute and five seconds, or at 
the rate of three and a half miles in an hour. The draft was 
indeed increased, but the increase was only 14 pounds, which 
might very probably be due to an increased tenacity of the soil. 

The following table shows the time which would be required 
for plowing an acre, with a furrow nine inches wide, at the differ- 
ent rates of motion, exclusive of stoppages: 



Rate of going per hour. 



Time required to ploAY 



Draught of 
plow. 



1-J miles 
II " 
21 " 
3i " 



7 hours, 20 minutes. 

6 " 30 

4 " 00 

3 " 08 " 



322 pounds. 

322 

308 

336 



Mr. Morton's experiments were first with a speed equivalent to 
two and a half miles an hour. The furrow was four by nine 
inches, and the draught was 378 pounds. At five miles an hour 
the draught was 392 pounds. His experiments were made with 
a self recording dynamometer, in which the pencil described the 
extent of every oscillation. It is worthy of remark that these 
oscillations were very greatly increased at the higher rate of 
speed, ranging between the extremes of 210 and 044 pounds, 
while at the lower rate the oscillations ranged from 280 to 504 
pounds. 



Practical Questions in Plows and Plowing. 165 

This result might have been reasonably expected, as when the 
plow strikes a stone or other obstruction the horses will naturally 
exert all their strength, and by so doing cause a wide sweep of 
oscillation. 

We can say in conclusion that the results obtained upon this 
point by Messrs. Morton and Pusey are fully corroborated by 
our own observations. We could detect no difference between 
the draught at high or low speeds, except such as are within the 
limit usually allowed for errors of observation. In fact, the 
dynamometer sometimes showed a less draught at a high speed 
than it did at a low one. 

This is quite in accordance with other experiments which have 
been made to ascertain the laws of friction, which show that it is 
entirely independent of velocity. 

The resistance to the action of the plow is made up of the 
weight of the plow pressing upon the sole, with the superadded 
weight of the furrow slice; the friction of the land side against 
the earth; the friction of the furrow slice against the surface of 
the mould-board; the splitting action of the coulter, and the force 
required to lift up and turn over the furrow slice. It is only in 
this latter case that the real work performed is increased by the 
velocity, and this is so small a proportion of the whole force that 
it may be safely neglected in practice. 

It will be seen at once by every farmer that the conclusion 
we have come to, in view of the experiments, is one of very 
great practical value. It shows, as Mr. Morton remarks, "the 
importance of employing draught animals which naturally walk 
at a rapid pace. Such animals, with same effort, get through 
double the work of those of a more sluggish movement. With 
the same effort, and therefore at no greater expense to the farmer. 
The employment of active animals is obviously one of the most 
influential methods of diminishing the expense of horse labor." 

In view of these experiments, Mr. Pusey remarks: "Here, 
then, it appears to me we have found the secret of the Scotch 
horse's superior performance as to quality of work done. Though 
they are stepping briskly along at a pace which enables them to 
work five-quarters of an acre in a day, while the dragging walk 
of the other horses carries them through three-quarters of an 
acre only in the same time. They feel the weight of the plow 
certainly not more than the others; perhaps even less. Let the 
horses be lively enough to face their work boldly, and step out 



166 Report on Trials of Plows. 

well; they get, or rather their master gets, beyond the former 
three-quarters of an acre, two-quarters more plowed for nothing. 
It is true that the horses have to walk a greater distance in one 
case, but this cannot be of much consequence. In plowing an 
acre, with the furrow nine inches wide, the horse has to walk in 
the furrow eleven miles exactly. If, then, he plow three-quarters 
of an acre in a day, he has to walk eight and one-quarter miles 
only; if five-quarters, he must pass over thirteen and three- 
quarters miles — but five and a half miles more than before. The 
increased rate of the animal's exertion has also, of course, a great 
effect upon the fatigue of its frame, where the difference is con- 
siderable. But I suppose that each animal has, in some degree, 
a natural pace, suited to its conformation, which is most easy to 
it, and that the quicker rate of two and three-quarters miles in 
the hour may be as natural to the Clydesdale horse as a more 
tardy walk to cart-horses of our heavy breeds. Still I do not 
wish to assert that, under all circumstances, it is as easy for a 
horse to move quickly as slowly with a heavy draught. If he be 
overweighted, he will not have sufficient strength to spare for 
carrying on his own weight with ease, aud will naturally flag at 
his task. 

" In order to move briskly, he ought, I suppose, to feel in some 
degree master of his work, and be able, if required, to draw 
something more than his actual load. I ought also to mention, 
after stating the superior exertions which the horse maybe called 
on to make, that these Clydesdale horses of Lord Moreton's are 
not only fed in a superior manner, but that their day's work is 
broken into two portions of time, between which they have rest, 
and either return home to be fed or are supplied by means of 
nose-bags, with corn, in the field. I believe that the practice of 
working horses for eight hours together not only adds to their 
fatigue, but that the absence of food for so long a time must be 
a much more severe privation to them (as to all animals feeding 
on grass and seeds only) than it is to the carnivorous animals and 
to ourselves." 



Line of Draught of Plows. 167 



CHAPTER VIII. 

ON THE LINE OF DRAUGHT OF PLOWS. 

Ill using a double mould-board plow it is very obvious that the 
line of draught will be in the direction of the middle line of such 
plow; that is, the resistance of the earth to the action of the 
mould-board on the right side of the beam tending to throw the 
heel of the plow to the left hand, will be exactly counterbalanced 
by the resistance of the earth on the left mould-board, tending 
to throw the heel to the right hand. These two faces being equal 
and contrary will therefore neutralize each other, and the plow 
will move steadily forward in the direct line of the draught. 

This is not the case when the left side is cut off, as in our ordi- 
nary plows, and the whole of the work is done by the share and 
mould-board of the right side. Here the plow is acted on by a 
lever whose length is the breadth of the plow, the effect of which 
is to throw the heel of the plow against the land side, and there- 
fore to throw the point away from land, thus constantly narrowing 
the breadth of the furrow. In order to obviate this tendency of 
the plow to run out, the English and Scotch plowmakers make 
their beams oblique to the plane of the land side, so that the for- 
ward extremity of the axis of the beam falls from an inch and a 
quarter to two inches to the right of the plane of the land side 
produced to that point. Although this obliquity of the beam 
effectually resists the tendency of the plow to run out, yet it 
introduces an element of unsteadiness into the motion of the plow 
which keeps the eye of the plowman continually upon the watch, 
and his. hand continually in motion to rectify the aberration. 

Messrs. Prouty & Mears devised a much better plan for accom- 
plishing this object, which has been since adopted by the greater 
number of our American plowmakers. 

They considered that there was a plane passing lengthwise 
through the plow, which was so situated that the forces on each 
side of it would balance each other. Since the greatest amount 
of the force required to move the plow is employed in severing 
the furrow slice from the solid land, it follows that the plane will 
lie much nearer to the land side than to the furrow side of the 
plow. They accordingly found, from carefully repeated experi- 



168 Report on Trials of Plows. 

merits, that in average soils and conditions that if the land side 
was made with seven degrees of obliquity to the perpendicular, 
or eighty-three degrees to the plane of the sole, the axis of the 
beam would lie in the plane passing through the centre of resist- 
ance. When the axis of the beam lies in this direction the plow 
moves forward without any tendency to deviate from the line of 
motion either to the right hand or the left. This arrangement is 
illustrated in Fig, 80, in which a vertical section of the plow is 
represented. The dotted line, C D, being the per- 
B pendicular to the plane of the sole, S; the angle 

TT C D B is 7 deg.; L is the standard, and the lower 

' I part of it is the land side; M, section of mould- 

I board; B, section of the beam. 

r\ There is also a horizontal as well as a perpen- 

/ \ dicular plane of resistance. "When the draught 

| \ 3£ coincides with this plane there is no tendency in 
n^ the plow to go deeper or shallower; if the draught 

>.— „ ^w. j g a |3 0ve ^ the point of the plow is drawn down- 

JFlg. 80. ward with a force proportioned to the height of the 
point of draught above this plane; if placed below it, the point 
of the plow will in like manner rise out of the ground, and these 
tendencies can only be counteracted by the plowman pressing on 
the handles of the plow in the former case, or lifting them by 
main force in the latter case. 

Again, we have a third plane of resistance, which is vertical and 
transverse. The plow enters the unbroken earth by a single 
point, the transverse sections increasing gradually in area until 
they attain to their maximum dimensions; but as the point enters 
and breaks the solid earth, the force required does not increase 
nearly as fast as the sectional area increases, hence the position 
of this plane raises from one to five inches behind the point of 
the plow, according to the consistency of the soil and the shape 
of the plow. 

The point of resistance of the plow is therefore situated at the 
intersection of these three planes. If the line of draught passes 
through this point, the plow will, in the language of the plow- 
man, "swim free;" and it is therefore a point of great practical 
importance to ascertain the locality of the point of resistance, 
and to have a ready means of adjustment hy which the line of 
draught may be made t<> pass through it. 



Line of Draught of Plows. 169 

In speaking of the proper angle of draught, Mr. Stephens 
remarks ("Book of the Farm," page 286): 

" The reasoning heretofore adopted on this branch of the 
theory of the plow seems to be grounded on the two following 
data: the height, on an average, of a horse's shoulder, or that 
point in his collar where the yoke is applied; and the length of 
the draught chains that will give him ample freedom to walk. It 
falls out, fortunately, too, that the angle of elevation thus pro- 
duced crosses the plane of the collar as it lies on the shoulders 
of the horse when in draught, nearly at right angles." 

It may, however, be shown that the plow may be drawn at any 
angle from the horizontal nearly up to the perpendicular, if 
certain practical difficulties were removed, and that would require 
a continually diminishing force to draw it as the line of draught 
approaches to a horizontal direction, arriving at a minimum when 
it reaches that point. It is, however, impossible in practice to 
apply the force in this direction, as the line of draught would, in 
this case, pass through the solid earth of the furrow slice; but it 
is practicable to draw the plow at an angle of 12 degrees, which, 
as will be demonstrated, will require less draught by fourteen 
pounds than would be required if the angle were 20 degrees, 
which may be considered as the average in the ordinary practice 
of plowing. A plow drawn at this low angle, viz., 12 degrees, 
would have its beam (if of the ordinary length) so low that the 
draught-bolt would be only ten inches above the base line; and 
this is not an impracticable height, though the traces might be 
required inconveniently long. On the same principle, the angle 
of draught might be elevated to 60 or 70 degrees, provided a 
motive power could be applied at such high angles. In this, as 
before, the beam and clevis would be in the straight line between 
the point of attachment at the collar and the centre of resistance. 
The whole plow, also, under this hypothesis, would require an 
almost indefinite increase of weight; and the power required to 
draw the plow, at an angle of 60 degrees, would be nearly twice 
that required in the horizontal direction, or li| times that of the 
present practice, exclusive of what might arise from increased 
weight. We may, therefore, conclude that to draw the plow at 
any angle higher than the present practice is impracticable, and, 
though rendered practicable, would still be highly inexpedient 
by reason of the disadvantage of incrersed force being thus ren- 
dered necessary, unless we can suppose that the application oi 



170 Report on Trials of Plows. 

steam or other inanimate power might require it. Neither would 

it be very expedient to adopt a lower angle, since it involves a 

a greater length of trace |^ 

chains, which at best would 

be rather cumbrous, and it 

would produce a saving of 

force of only 14 pounds on 

the draught of a pair of 

horses. Yet it is worthy of 

being borne in mind that, 

in all cases, there is some 

saving of labor to the horses, 

whenever they are, by any 

means, allowed to draw by 

a chain of increased length, 

provided the clevis of the 

plow is brought into the 

line of the draught, and the 

draught chains are not of 

such undue weight as to 

produce a sensible curva- 
ture; in other words, to 

insure the change of angle 

at the horse's shoulder due 

to the increased length of 

the draught chain." 

This subject will be better 

understood when considered 

in connection with Fig. 81. 
Let a represent the body 

of the plow, b the point of 

the beam, and c the centre 

of resistance of the plow, 

which may be assumed at a 

.lei^ht of two inches above 

the plane of the sole, d e, 

though it is liable to change 

within short limits. The av- 
erage length of the draught 



chains or traces being ten 
feet,includingevener, whiffle 




Fiff 



Line of Draught of Plows. 171 

trees, hooks, and all that intervenes between the clevis and the 
horse's shoulders. Let that distance be set off in the direction 
bf and, the average height of the horse's shoulders being four 
feet two inches, let the point / be fixed at that height, above the 
base line, d e. Draw the line f c, which is the direction of the 
line of draught, acting upon the centre of resistance, c; and if 
the plow is in proper temper it will coincide with the clevis; e cf 
being the angle of draught and equal to 20 degrees. It will be 
easily perceived that, with the same horses and the same length 
of yoke, the angle, e c /, is invariable; and if the plow has a 
tendency to dip at the point of the share under this arrangement, 
it indicates that the draught-bolt, b, is too high in the bridle. 
Shifting the bolt one or two holes downwards will bring the plow 
to swim evenly upon its sole. On the other hand, if the plow 
has a tendency to raise at the point of the share, the indication 
from this is that the evener is too low in the clevis, and the recti- 
fication must be made by raising it one or two holes in the clevis. 

Suppose, again, that a pair of taller horses were yoked in the 
plow, the traces, depth of furrow, and soil, and, by consequence, 
the point of resistance, c, remaining the same, we should then 
have the point / raised to /'. By drawing the line /' c we have 
e cf' as the angle of draught, which will now be 22 degrees; and 
in this new arrangement the draught-bolt is found to be below the 
line of draught,/' c; and if the traces were applied at b, in the 
direction of/' b, the plow would have a tendency to rise at the 
point of the share by the action of that law of forces which 
obliges the line of draught to coincide with the line which passes 
through the centre of resistance; hence the draught-bolt, b, would 
be found to rise to b', which would raise the point of the share 
out of its proper direction. To rectify this, then, the draught- 
bolt must be raised in the bridle by a space equal to b b', causing 
it to coincide with the true line of draught, which would again 
bring the plow to swim evenly on its sole. 

Regarding the relative forces required to overcome the resist- 
ance of the plow when drawn at different angles of draught, we 
have first to consider the nature of the form of those parts 
through which the motive force is brought to bear upon the plow. 
It has been shown that the tendency of the motive force acts in a 
direct line from the shoulder of the animal of draught to the 
centre of resistance; and, referring again to Fig. 81, were it not 
for considerations of convenience, a straight bar or beam lying in 



172 Report on Trials of Plows. 

the direction c b, and attached firmly to the plow's body, any- 
where between c and g, would answer all the purposes of draught, 
perhaps better than the present beam. But the draught not 
being the end in view, but merely the means by which that end 
is accomplished, the former is made to subserve the latter; and 
as the beam, if placed in the direction c b, would obstruct the 
proper working of the plow, we are constrained to resort to 
another indirect action to arrive at the desired effect. This 
indirect action is accomplished through the medium of a system 
of rigid angular frame work, consisting of the beam and the 
body of the plow, or those parts of them comprehended between 
the points b h c, the beam being so connected to the body, a h, as 
to form a rigid mass. The effect of the motive force applied to 
this rigid system of parts at the point b, and in the direction bf 
produces the same result as if c b were firmly connected by a bar 
in the position of the line c b, or as if that bar alone were 
employed, as in the case before supposed, and to the exclusion 
of the beam, b h. 

Let us now proceed to examine the effect of the oblique draught 
on traction. The average draught of plows at the Albany trials 
in 1850, was 407 pounds, with a furrow seven inches by ten 
inches, when exerted in the direction b f If now we take the 
value of the line b f at 407, a certain portion of the force will be 
exerted in direct traction, and another portion will be exerted 
in pulling the plow up from the ground in the direction i f 
and the force of traction will be to the lifting force in the 
exact ratio of the line i b to the line if. The line if is 50 inches 
— 16 inches = 34 inches : the line b f is 120 inches; the line i b 
is therefore 115 inches; and we therefore have 120 inches : 115 
inches : : 407 pounds : 390 pounds = the amount of direct draught 
upon the plow exerted by the horses. In like manner the force 
lifting the plow upwards is found to be 114 pounds. The same 
result would follow if the beam were supported by a wheel under 
ihe point b; the wheel would then bear up the beam with the 
same force as that by which it was supposed to be suspended, 
viz.: 114 pounds. But to carry out the supposition, let the 
draught now found be applied at the point c; as the plow would 
then have no tendency to dip or rise, the force, Jc b, vanishes, 
leaving only the direct horizontal force, i b; hence, were it pos- 
sible to apply the draught in a horizontal direction from the point 



Line of Draught of Plows. 173 

of resistance, the resistance of the plow would be 390 pounds 
instead of 407 pounds. 

THE WHEEL. 

It is not difficult to show that, theoretically considered, a wheel 
placed under the beam can in no case lessen the traction of the 
plow, as many plowmakers and plowmen have alleged. 

Let us suppose that the line of draught is in the horizontal 
direction; it will therefore require that a support be placed 
beneath the beam to prevent its sinking too low, which support, 
in all modern plows, is given by a wheel. It has been shown 
that whether the plow be drawn in the ordinary direction of 
draught, b f, in which one oblique propelling force only is 
exerted, or with two antagonist forces, b i, in the horizontal direc- 
tion, and the upholding force, b k, in the vertical, we find that in 
the latter the difference in favor of motive force is only one 
twenty-fourth of the usual resistance; but the upholding force is 
equal to two-sevenths, while none of these variations has pro- 
duced any change in the absolute resistance of the plow. The 
impelling force is theoretically less in the latter case; but since 
the wheel has a load of 107 pounds to carry, we have to consider 
the effect of this load upon a small wheel, arising from friction 
and the resistance it will encounter by sinking more or less into 
the subsoil. 

Mr. Stephens has ascertained from experiment that the differ- 
ence of force required to draw a wheel twelve inches in diameter, 
loaded as above described, and again when unloaded, over a tol- 
erably firm soil, is equal to 22 pounds, a quantity exceeding one 
and a half times the amount of saving that would accrue by adopt- 
ing this supposed horizontal draught with a wheel. Having thus 
found the amount of draught at two extremities of a scale, the 
one being the oblique draught, in common use, at an angle of 20 
deg., the other deduced from this through the medium of the 
established principles of oblique forces, and the latter producing 
a saving of one twenty-fourth of the motive force while it is 
encumbered with an additional resistance arising from the support 
or wheel. It necessarily follows that at all intermediate angles 
of draught, or at any angle whatever where the principle of 
the parallelogram of forces finds place — and it will find place 
in all cases where wheels yielding any support are applied to the 
plow under the beam — there must necessarily be an increase in 



174 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



the amount of resistance to the motive force. The diagram, 
Fig. 82, will make this important matter still more intelligible. 
Let a be the point of resistance of a plow's body, b the point 
of the beam, c the position of the horses' shoulders, and a d the 
horizontal line; then will c a d be the angle of draught, equal 

g 




Fig. 82. 

20 deg. Let the circle e represent a wheel placed under the 
beam, which is supported by a stem or shears, here represented 
by the line e b. In this position the point of the beam, Avhich is 
also the point of draught, lies in the line of draught; the wheel, 
therefore, bears no load, but is simply in place, and has no effect 
on the draught; the motive force, therefore, continues to be 407 
pounds. 

Suppose, now, the point of the beam to be raised to g, so that 
the line of draught, g c, may be horizontal; and since the line of 
draught lies now out of the original line, a b c, and has assumed 
that of a g c, g being now supported on the produced stem, e g, 
of the wheel, draw g i 'perpendicular to a c and complete the 
parallelogram, a i g k; the side, a i, will still represent the origi- 
nal motive force of 407 pounds, but by the change of direction 
of the line of draught, the required force will now be represented 
by the diagonal, a g, of the parallelogram, equal to 425 pounds, 
and g c is a continuation of this force in a horizontal direction. 
The draft is therefore increased by 18 pounds. Complete also 
the parallelogram, a I g m, and as the diagonal, a g — the line of 
draught last found — is equal to 425 pounds, the side, I g, of the 
parallelogram will represent the vertical pressure of the beam 
upon the wheel, e, equal to about 250 pounds, which, from Mr. 
Stephens' experiments, may be valued at' 50 pounds of additional 
resistance, making the whole resistance to the motion 475 pounds, 
and being a total increase arising from the introduction of a wheel 
in this position of 68 pounds. Having here derived a maximum — 



Line of Draught of Plows. 175 

no doubt an extreme case — and the usual angle of 20 cleg, as a 
minimum, we can predicate that, at any angle intermediate to 
lab and lag, the resistance can never be reduced to the mini- 
mum of 407 pounds. Hence it follows, as a corollary, that 
wheels placed under the beam can never lessen the resistance of the 
plow; but, on the contrary, must in all cases increase the resist- 
ance to the motive force more or less, according to the degree of 
pressure that is brought to bear, and this will be proportional to 
the line of the angle in the resultant, a g, of the line of draught. 

We have now finished the discussion of the wheel question on 
theoretical principles, deeming it best to introduce no disturbing 
questions to distract the attention of the reader until all that we 
had to say under that head was brought to a close. 

"We may now remark that our theoretical views are based upon 
a uniform motion, a uniform soil and a homogeneous texture, but 
such a coincidence of conditions is rarely met with in practice. 
Some portions of the soil are wet, while others are dry; some 
parts are hilly, and others level; some parts are adhesive, and 
others are crumbling; some are stony, others full of roots. The 
instances are indeed rare where there is a perfect uniformity in 
the conditions which are essential to bring it into conformity with 
theory. 

There are few questions connected with plowing which have 
been more energetically or more persistently disputed than that 
between wheel and swing plows. The Scotch plowmen have been 
especially pugnacious, doing battle for the swing plow with the 
utmost vehemence. The English plowmen have, been equally 
certain that the wheel was essential to good plowing. While the 
Americans, thinking little about the matter and saying less, have 
instinctively adopted them. 

The advocates of the swing plow claim the following advan- 
tages. 

First — It educates a better class of workmen. Almost any 
one, after the practice of one or two days, can use a wheel plow 
and do pretty good work. None but a first-class workman can 
make good work with a swing plow. 

Second — Its depth can be regulated by the proper adjustment 
of the whifiie-trees in the clevis, or by increasing the length of 
the traces. 

Third — The plowman can regulate the action of the point by 
bearing upon or lifting up the handles. 



176 Report on Trials of Plows. 

Fourth — It is more simple in its construction and less in cost. 

Fifth — It can be used across ridges, and under a much greater 
variety of circumstances than the wheel plow. 

Sixth — It requires less power. 

The advocates of wheel plows claim the following advantages 
for their favorite implement: 

First — The plowing can be effected with more ease to the 
plowman. 

Second — The work can be performed with much greater accu- 
racy; the depth is more uniform and the sole is kept more level. 

Third — Where very shallow or very deep plowing is required 
it can be better done with a wheel than with a skim plow, and 
also where the land is hard and stony. 

Let us briefly consider these conflicting allegations: 

First — It is doubtless true that a swing plow requires a more 
skillful plowman than a wheel plow, but this, in a country where 
skilled plowmen are so rare as they are in this, is an objection 
rather than an advantage. No one denies that a poor workman 
can do very much better work with a wheel plow than with a 
swing plow, and this, in our judgment, settles this point in their 
favor. 

Second — The alleged capacity for adjustment is true, but it is 
equally true of the wheel plow. 

Third — This allegation must also be admitted, but it is done 
at a great expense of friction upon the team, and of great labor to 
the plowman, which increases the wear of the plow. The use of 
the wheel obviates the necessity of all this, and therefore we 
think that in this respect wheels have the advantage. 

Fourth — This must be admitted, but the advantage in this 
respect is so slight that it is scarcely worth taking into the 
account. 

Fifth — This assertion must be taken with some limitations. In 
cases where the rock lies at varying depths, sometimes witMn 
three or four inches of the surface, at others at a greater depth, 
ill cutting across dead fallows where the surface is rough, and 
hard clods interrupt the even action of the wheels, there can be 
no doubt that the swing plow would do best. In crossing steep 
ridges and furrows the action of the ascending wheel raises the 
share out of the furrow, while in descending it plunges deeper 
into the ridge. This, however, occurs only in extreme cases, and 



Line of Draught of Plows. 177 

to a considerable degree the same effect attends the swing plow 
unless it is managed by plowmen more expert than are often 
found in England or even in Scotland, and of whom scarce a score 
could be found in the State of New York. On the other hand, 
in stony land, or where the soil is obstructed by roots, it must be 
confessed on all hands that a wheel is of the greatest advantage. 

Sixth — The assertion that the wheel plow requires more power 
than the swing is completely disproved by the most accurate and 
frequently repeated experiments. 

We have shown by geometrical reasoning that the wheel adds 
to the draught of the plow when constantly pressed upon by the 
trim of the plow; but this ought never to be allowed, and will 
never occur in level and tolerably homogeneous soils, when the 
draught is properly adjusted. The pressure will only occur in 
coincidence with the occurrence of inequalities; but on the other 
hand, these inequalities must be overcome by the pressure of the 
plowman's hands, which, acting on a long lever, increases the 
friction in a greater degree than the wheel, and therefore augments 
the friction of the plow in a greater degree also. 

Mr. Handley, in a paper which received the prize of the Royal 
Agricultural Society, details a series of experiments that he per- 
formed with a view to the determination of this question. 

Two wheel plows were tried in connection with two swino- 
plows. The average draught of the wheel plows was 288 pounds, 
while the average draught of the swing plows was 341 pounds, 
making an average difference of 53 pounds in favor of the wheel 
plows. 

Mr. Handley's experiments were performed at Ipswich, in 1838. 
The average weight of the wheel plows was 220 pounds; the 
average weight of the swing plows was 135 pounds. It was 
farther established at this trial that the draught of a plow is not 
increased in an equal ratio with its weight, for on loading one of 
the wheel plows with 112 pounds, or 51 per cent additional 
weight, the draught was only increased 33 pounds, or 12 per cent. 

These trials were repeated by Mr. Pusey in 1840, with the 
following results: The average draught of four swing plows, 
working a deep, strong loam, was 441 pounds, while that of the 
four wheel plows, working in the same soil, was 434 pounds, 
showing an average difference of 7 pounds in favor of the wheel 
plows in this kind of soil. In a brown loamy sand the average 

12 



178 Report on Trials of Plows. 

draught of the four swing plows was 245 pounds; that of the four 
wheel plows was 210 pounds, showing an average of 35 pounds 
in favor of the wheel plows. In a blue clay soil the average 
draught of the four swing plows was 686 pounds; the average 
draught of the four wheel plows was 630 pounds, showing a differ- 
ence in favor of the wheel plows of 56 pounds. In a sandy loam 
the difference in favor of the wheel plows was 49 pounds. The 
average difference in these four trials, in as many different soils, 
was 37 pounds, or 10 per cent, in favor of the wheel plows. 

Mr. Handley accounts for this superiority of wheel plows as 
follows: 

" As regards the cause of the diminished force required by the 
wheel, compared with the swing plow, it appears to me to be 
principally, if not fully, explained by the more uniform horizontal 
motion communicated to the share and sole of the former through 
the regulating medium of the wheels at the fore part of the 
beam, which diminish the shocks arising from the continued 
vibrations of the implement when balanced between the hand of 
the plowman and the back and shoulders of the horse. It is not 
contended that wheels so situated act the part of lessening the 
friction between the sole and the soil; but they keep the rubbing 
part more truly to its depth, and maintain its horizontal action 
more correctly; whereas the horses affect a swing plow at every 
step b}' the irregularity of their proper movement, which has to 
be counteracted by the effort of the man at the opposite end. 
Thus conflicting forces are momentarily produced, and continual 
elevations and depressions of the point of the share take place, 
together with deviations from the flat position of the sole, which 
should be retained at right angles to the perpendicular; and to 
remedy which unskillful plowmen bear unequally on the stilts, 
which produces a lateral pressure landwards, and consequently a 
great amount of friction along the whole of the left side plane of 
the plow. However small may be the efforts of the plowman to 
keep his plow 'swimming fair' those efforts must be attended 
with increased resistance, and consequently with increased resist- 
ance to the horses." 

It is not pretended that, in a wheel plow, none of these irregu- 
larities of motion exist; on the contrary, the dynamometer shows 
them to be very considerable, but less in degree than in the swing 
plow. The oscillations of the index of the dynamometer are, as 



Line of Draught of Plows. 179 

might bo expected, very great when applied to a plow. The point 
of a plowshare may be readily supposed, at one instant, to have 
burst a sod, which, opening and being raised upwards, offers for 
several inches but a trifling resistance to its progress; it again 
meets the obstacle, which is again overcome. It is similar with 
roots, stones and other varying impediments, and thus, at every 
step of the horse (whose motion is also a series of impulses), the 
draught, as exhibited by the dynamometer, is continually and 
largely varying. 

These are effects arising from the nature of animal force and 
of the soil; they are necessarily common to both plows, but 
appear to be augmented in the swing, compared with the wheel 
plow, and sufficiently account for the diminished draught of the 
latter as shown in the experiments. 

We think we have now shown that the claims of the advocates 
of swing plows are mostly invalid, while those of the friends of 
the wheel plow are shown to be founded in reason and experi- 
ence, and the practice of American farmers is therefore fully 
justified. 

Before leaving the subject we desire to quote a statement of 
Mr. Handley, which very strikingly illustrates the action of the 
plowman on the draught of the plow. 

" In one of my trials I substituted for a first-rate plowman one 
who, though no novice, was decidedly his inferior, and who held 
the same plow for a bout, during which he exerted his best abili- 
ties, aware of the comparison about to be instituted, and yet the 
draught was in, his hands, increased six per cent, and I have no 
doubt, had he continued to hold the plow for an entire day, it 
would have been considerably more. This man, though inferior 
to the other, possessed skill above the average of plowman usually 
employed. Had he held a plow with wheels there would proba- 
bly have been no difference in the draught between the holding 
of the plow by himself and predecessor." 

There is a considerable difference in the mode of making and 
attaching wheels to plows. The old fashioned high gallows 
frame may be seen in Plate I. This plan, though capable of 
being used by a good plowman so as to do good work, is so 
complex in the adjustment that in the hands of unskilled work- 
men they are apt to consume more power and to do less perfect 
work. 



180 



Report on Trials of Plows. 




«2 



A much better and simpler plan for a two wheeled plow is given 
in Plate V, in connection with the plows of Messrs. Ransome and 

Howard. It is claimed by many that 

there is an advantage in the use of two 

wheels, as the land wheel acts as a 

lateral gauge to the width of each 

furrow as well as to the depth, and 

therefore the uniformity of width, 

depth and angle of the furrow slice 

Fig. 83. thus produced give a perfect form to 

the whole operation. The American form of the double wheel 

plow is given in Fig. 83. 

The usual form of the single wheel is shown on the side of 
the plow beam, in Fig. 84, and beneath it 
in Fio-. 85. In either case the wheel 
frame is clasped to the 
beam in a manner that 
readily admits of raising 
or lowering the wheel to 
give the plow any desi- 
red depth of work; and when adjusted to a given point it is 
then made fast by tightening the clasp. 




Fig. 84 




Fig. 85. 



THE COULTEK. 

Fig. 86 shows the manner of inserting the coulter through a 
mortise in the beam. It is secured by a wedge; the beam is 
strengthened from splitting by a diagonal band passing round it. 
It is adjusted to the side of the beam, as shown 






Fig. 86. 



Fig. 87. 



Fig. 88. 



in Fig. 87, by a diagonal clamp, which supports the front of the 
coulter on the upper side, and the back on the lower side; the 
ends pass through holes in an iron plate, and are fastened securely 
by nuts. 

Fig. 88 is a form of the coulter in which a circular plate, 



Line of Draught of Plows. 



181 



having a socket on its face, which secures the shank of the 
coulter; is made to revolve by the action of a screw, thus 
enabling the plowman to set it at any desired angle.. 

The favorite plans for raising or lowering the coulter in Eng- 
land are given in Fig. 89, and also for changing its angle, which 
will be readily understood on inspection. 




iftfi 
t 



li 



^sk* 



Fig. 89. 

Fig. 90 represents the lock coulter, which is made of wrought 
iron, steel edged. It passes through the plow beam, and is made fast 
on top with a key, or with a nut and screw, and locks through the 
share and mould-board where they join together. 
The adjustment is a very 
strong one, both for the 
coulter and the plow, and 
fits the implement for work- 
ing among stones, stumps 
and roots, as the coulter 
^_ cannot be turned out of 
place or broken by such 
obstacles. The revolving- 
coulter is represented in Fig. 91. It consists of a steel plate, 
revolving on an axis, and having a stem which is clasped to the 
beam, as shown in the cut. In some cases the coulter is con- 
veniently replaced by the fin share represented in Fig. 92. It is 
used for plowing sod lands infested with roots and stumps or 
stones, where the sward cutter cannot be used without danger of 
getting bent or misplaced. It is also useful when plowing in 
stubble or coarse manure, serving to keep the plow from clogging 
at the standard. It separates the furrow slice from the unplowed 
land easier and more smoothly than it could be done by the 
breast of the plow. Much depends upon the form and size of 




JFig. 90. 



jFiff. 97. 



182 



Report on Trials of Plows. 




the coulter and its adjustment. It should be made of iron, faced 
with steel, and of sufficient bulk to stand firmly in the position 
in which it is set for its work; not to bend either to the right hand 
or to the left. The most approved 
Eno-lish coulters are about two and 
a half inches wide, and formed by 
the meeting of two curves, as in 
Fig. 89 . The land side of the 
coulter should be flat, and the 
opposite side a gradual taper from 
the edge to the back. The thick- 
ness must be determined by the •&&• 92. 
strength of the work it has to perform. American coulters are 
generally made either straight edged, as in Fig. 87, or slightly 
curved backward from the point. When secured, as shown in 
Fig. 89, it is kneed inward, so as to adjust it to the plane of the 
land side. 

Having now considered the various forms of the coulter, we 
pass on to a consideration of its function and its adjustment. 

Mr. Stephens has asserted that the force required to draw a 
coulter seven inches deep in the earth requires no more power 
than it does to draw a plow making a furrow seven inches deep 
and ten inches wide, without a coulter. This experiment, we 
believe, stands alone, unsupported by the testimony of any other 
observer. "We had desired to verify it at Utica, with every pre- 
caution to insure accuracy, but were prevented from doing so by 
the unexpected and untimely removal of the dynamometer from 
thence. 

The 'subject being one of such great importance, we give Mr. 
Stephens' statements in his own words: 

" On a subject which has of late attracted considerable atten- 
tion, I was desirous of obtaining information from experiments 
alone on the actual implement; and, to attain this more fully, I 
• letermined on anatyzing the resistance as far as possible. With 
\ his view, a plow was prepared whose coulter was descended 
seven inches below the line of the sole, and fitted to stand at any 
required angle. This plow, with its sole upon the surface of a 
two-year old lea, and the coulter alone in the soil, the bridle 
having been adjusted to make it swim without any undue tendency, 
the force required to draw this experimental instrument, as indi- 
cated by the dynamometer, was twenty-six imperial stones (350 



Line of Draught of Plows. 183 

pounds), and no sensible difference was observed in a range of angles 
varying from 45 to 70 degrees. This coulter, having been 
removed, the plow was drawn along the surface of the field, when 
the plow indicated eight stones (112 pounds), the usual draught 
of a plow on the surface. 

"Another well-trimmed plow was at work in the same ridge, 
taking a furrow ten by seven inches, and its draught was also 
350 pounds. The furrow thus taken produced, of course, a slice of 
very rough plowmanship; and though it exhibited, by a negative, 
the essential use of the coulter — the clean cutting of the slice 
from the solid ground — the whole question of the operation and 
working effects of the coulter are thus placed in a very anomolous 
position." 

If the experiment of Mr. Stephens is reliable, it would seem 
that the extreme care which plowmakers have taken to adjust the 
coulter accurately to the various parts of the plow is quite unnec- 
essary, and that the reasons given for their respective plans rest 
upon a purely imaginary foundation. 

Farmers having observed that a drawing cut requires less power 
to separate a solid body than a direct cut by pressure — as the saw 
cuts easier than the chisel — have imagined that they obtained 
such a drawing cut by giving a long rake to the coulter; but on 
looking closely at the matter it will be seen that this gives no 
drawing action whatever to the cut of the coulter. 

There is no upward and downward motion, no reciprocating 
action as when we draw a knife across a loaf of bread, but it is 
simply a cut effected by horizontal pressure operating through 
the whole length of the blade just as when the edge of a chisel is 
pressed into wood by the blow of a mallett. There is therefore 
no economy of power by inserting the coulter at a high angle 
with the sole, the resistance so far as the splitting of homogeneous 
earth is concerned is precisely the same whether the angle is 45 
cleg, or 80 deg. 

Nevertheless, in practice, arising from other causes than the 
splitting of the earth, there are great advantages to be derived 
from a variation of the angle between 45 deg. and 85 deg., and 
incidentally there is a considerable saving of power. 

Thus in plowing stubble land which is very foul the dry grass 
and butts of the straw would collect transversely on the edge of 
the coulter. In this case the draft is frequently increased by 150 
pounds; by giving it it a long rake the stubble is shoved upward 



184 Report on Trials of Plows. 

and the edge is kept clear. So when the ground is full of roots, 
when the coulter is set slanting the roots will slide upward, and 
the drawing action will cut them; whereas, if the coulter was set 
at 80 deg. it would draw them out. On the other hand, when 
used for plowing sod or clover the furrow will be much cleaner 
when the angle is 75 deg. or 80 deg., as it will not press the 
grass and roots upwards before they can be cut through. 

There is one rule pretty generally observed in relation to the 
coulter, both in Europe and America, which is that the land side face 
shall always be parallel to the plane of the land side of the plow. 

Another rule pretty generally adopted is that at the point where 
the coulter meets the surface of the ground the edge should stand 
about one-quarter of an inch landward of the plane of the land- 
side of the plow. 

In the plows made by Prouty & Mears, and those of some other 
makers, the reverse of this rule is adopted, the coulter being set 
inwards toward the mould-board about half an inch at the point 
where the coulter touches the surface, as shown in Fig. 93, and 
extending from thence landward so that the point of the coulter 
is vertical over the point 
of the share. This leaves 
a small triangle whose 
base is half an inch and 
whose altitude is the 
depth of the furrow to 

cut off by the shin of the JFig, 93. 

plow; this is converted into powder, which rolls over on the face 
of the furrow slice and covers the grass, which sometimes sticks 
up in the angle of the slice. 

The vertical elevation of the point of the coulter above the 
plane of the sole is not well settled. In England it is generally 
put from one to two inches above, in America from three to four 
inches above it. 

, Then English and Scotch usually put the point of the coulter 
vertically over the point of the share, but in America it is placed 
mostly from two to four inches in advance of it. 

We think there is no absolute rule which can be laid dowD 
upon these points. The nature of the soil to be plowed will 
influence the set of the coulter very considerably, and the deter- 
mination of this part of the trimming of the plow may be safely 
left to the judgment of the plowman. 




Mechanical Conditions of the Plow. 185 

CHAPTER IX 

OF THE MECHANICAL CONDITIONS OP THE PLOW. 

In order to fulfill the indications described in the preceding 
pages, it is necessary to form the plow so that, in sandy land, or 
in light crumbly loams, the furrow shall be completely inverted, 
so that the surface of the soil shall be laid upon the bottom, and 
that which was upon the bottom shall be turned upon the top. 

In stiffer soils it is necessary to lap the furrows, so that the 
upper surface shall form an angle of 45 degrees with the base, 
when the lower edge of the last plowed slice will lap over one- 
third of the preceding slice. 




As will be seen on Fig. 94, where the lines a c and df are nine 
inches long, and the lines a g and d h are six inches long, and the 
lines a b and d e are each three inches long, or one-third of the 
length of the lines a c and d e, which represent the breadth of 
the furrow. When the furrow slices are laid in this position, the 
line b c is always equal to the line c e, and the line ef to fi. 

It may be shown by the following reasoning which we borrow 
from Mr. Stephens, that this position insures the exposure of the 
greatest possible surface of earth to the atmosphere. It also 
elevates the maximum cubical mass of earth, and makes the 
deepest seed-bed when the angles are drawn off by the action of 
the harrow. 

Let a b, Fig. 95, represent the breadth of a ten-inch furrow 
slice, and describe the semicircle, a c b, upon it as a diameter. 
From this well known property of the circle, that the angle in a 
semicircle is a right angle, every triangle formed upon the 
diameter as a base, will be right angled; and the only isosceles 
triangle that can be formed within it will be that which has, c d 



186 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



equal a b, the breadth of the slice, which must always be equal 
to the distance between the apices of two contiguous furrows. 

Complete the parallelogram, a c d e, which will represent the 
transverse section of a rectangular slice, whose breadth is ten 
inches, and whose two exposed faces, a c and c b, lie at angles of 
45 degrees, and their breadth, as well as the area of the triangle, 
a b c, will be a maximum. In order to prove this, let a section 
of another slice be formed, whose exposed side, a /, shall be 
greater than the corresponding side, a c, of the former, and let 
this be taken at eight inches. From f, through the point b, draw 




f g; then will af b be a right angle as before; f g, being also made 
equal to ten inches, complete the parallelogram, afg h, which 
will represent the transverse section of a rectangular slice ten 
inches by eight inches, occupying the same horizontal breadth as 
before, and whose exposed faces will be a f and f b. Draw the 
line i c k parallel to a b, and' passing through the apex, c, of the 
triangle, a c b; and the line i k, also parallel to the line, a b, 
passing through the apex, /, of the triangle, a f b. Here the 
triangles, a c b and afb, stand on equal bases, a b; but the first 
lies between the parallels a b and i c k, and the second between 
those of a b and i' ti ; the altitude,//', therefore, of the triangle 
a f b is less than the altitude, c c', of the triangle, a c b. And 
triangles on equal bases being proportioned to their altitudes, it 
follows that the triangle a f b is less than the triangle a c b, both 



Mechanical Conditions of the Plow. 187 

in area and periphery. Suppose, again, a slice whose sides, a I, 
is less than the corresponding side, a c, and let it be six inches; 
from / through the point b, as before, draw I m, and construct the 
parallelogram, a I ran, we shall have a transverse section of a 
third slice of ten by six inches, whose exposed faces, a I, lb, 
occupy the same horizontal breadth as before. Here the triangle 
alb lies between the parallels a b and V k', consequently to af b, 
and less than a c b. 

This simple geometrical demonstration as applicable to the slice 
may be corroborated by the usual formula of the triangle. Thus 
the altitude of the triangle a c b is ^ = 5 inches = c c', and the side 
a c or c b is = V a c 2 -\-c c 2 ; or a c and c c being each equal to five 
inches, a c or cb will = V 25 + 25 = 7-071 inches, which is the 
depth due to a slice of ten inches in breadth, and the sum of the 
two exposed faces will be 7 • 071 + 2 = 14 • 142 inches. 

In the triangle a f b, a b = 10 inches, and a f = 8 inches, 
then a b 2 — af 2 =fb 2 , and the y/fb 2 = 6 inches. The three 
sides, therefore, of this triangle are ten, eight and six inches, 
and the altitude,//', is easily found by the principles of similar 
triangles. Thus, in the similar triangles, aff\f bf', a b : af 
:: f b : ff. The perpendicular//' is therefore = 4-8 inches, 
hence the exposed surfaces are as 14 • 141 : 14, and the altitudes 
as 5 to 4 • 8. 

Since it turns out that a I is equal to f b, and a b is common to 
both, it follows that I b is equal to a f. and the periphery and 
altitude is also equal and less in all respects than the triangle 
a cb, and so of any other position or dimension. 

By recurring to Fig. 94, it will be seen that when the furrow 
slices are laid at an angle of 45 degrees, a triangular drain, g d h, 
is left under each furrow. This not only drains off the surface 
water, but allows the air to enter freely beneath the surface, 
which, in conformity with what has been said in the preceding 
section, is of very great advantage, and strongly recommends the 
adoption of this mode of plowing in stiff and retentive soils. 

It will follow, from what has been stated, that the proportion 
of the depth to the width must always be in the ratio of 2 to 3. 
Six inches deep and nine inches broad, or seven inches by ten, 
are the most usual proportions. 

Fig. 96 illustrates the action of the plow in this style of plow- 
ing; a b is the exterior edge of the slice which is being turned; 
e f is the edge along which the land side of the plow has just 



188 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



passed; c d is the inner edge of the slice; g h is the sole of the 
furrows, and i k, I m are slices which have been previously turned 
over. 




JFiff. 96. 

The exact mechanism of the rotation of the slice is clearly 
illustrated in Fig. 97. Let abed represent the transverse section 
of a furrow slice nine inches wide and six inches deep, which it 
is proposed to raise. The point of the plow enters at the point 
d; as nothing is cut or broken before it, it must necessarily take 
a greater strain and sustain a greater amount of abrasion than any 
other portion of the implement. The entrance of the point gives 
an upward tension to the slice, which facilitates the action of the 




Fig. 97. 

horizontally cutting edge of the feather, which severs the slice at 
the bottom from the sole, d c, as it advances forward; at the same 
time the .slice is raised from its centre, c, and the outer and under 
corners traverses the arc of a circle, d eg k. The parallelogram, 
c e s f, .shows the position of the .slice when the point d has been 



Mechanical Conditions of the Plow. 189 

vertically elevated four inches to the point e. At the point g it 
has been vertically elevated eight inches, and the position of the 
slice is shown in the parallelogram c g hi. When the point d 
has been raised through an entire quadrant, the line d c is repre- 
sented by h c, and the line b c by c m. The vertical line of the 
mould-board in contact with the line h c is called the zero line, 
and the point touched by the angle at k is called the zero point. 
This point is of importance, as from it all measurements of plows 
are usually made. Up to this time the slice has turned on the 
centre c, but on its further passage to the positions o p n m and 
q r m s, the centre of rotation is the point m, until it attains to 
an angle of 45 degrees, when the slice rests upon the edge of the 
preceding furrow. If the whole sole of the slice were to be 
severed by the share, it is clear that it would be very difficult, if 
not impossible, to lay the slice accurately. The plow would act 
as a simple wedge, pushing the slice over to the furrow side from 
the land side; it would not coincide with the twist of the mould- 
board, and therefore the transverse cracks which it receives, and 
which is so essential to its pulverization, would not be communi- 
cated to it; it would frequently leave it in a vertical position, and 
sometimes, especially on side-hills, the furrow would fall back 
into its old position. To prevent this, the rear angle of the 
feather should never be further from the plane of the land side 
than from one-half to three-quarters of the breadth of the furrow, 
that is, if the furrow is ten inches wide, the rear angle of the 
feather should be from five to seven and one-half inches from the 
plane of the land side, measuring across the sole of the plow by 
the shortest line between them. The strip thus left unsevered 
on the furrow side holds the furrow to its place and forms a sort 
of hinge upon which it turns. 

We have hitherto confined our attention exclusively to furrow 
slices whose transverse sections are rectangles; but many plow- 
makers and plowmen insist that a crested furrow, whose trans- 
verse section is a trapezoid, is better than the rectangular furrow 
because it forms a deeper seed-bed. This form is produced when 
the rear angle of the feather lies in a plane from one inch to an 
inch and a quarter higher than the plane of the point. 

Fig. 98 shows that those who claim a better seed-bed for a 
trapezoidal furrow are mistaken. A series of triangles,/^/' and 
f ff'f'i etc -> are l e ft undisturbed at the bottom of the furrow, 
which are effectually cut up by a plow turning a rectangular 



190 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



furrow slice. Again, the side a b being nine inches, and the side 
c d a fraction longer; the side b d six inches, and the side a c four 
and a half inches, it is evident that less loose earth is provided 
for the seed-bed by a trapezoidal slice than a rectangular one by 
the triangle, d e c, which varies from one-seventh to one-tenth of 
the entire section, according to the elevation of the rear angle of 
the feather. 

a. a i 




The practical rule proposed by Mr. Stephens for the formation 
of the sole of the plow, with reference to the formation of rec- 
tangular furrow slices, is that the height of the shield — the 
surface of the share — on the land side, opposite to the rear angle 
of the feather, be two and a half inches above the line of the sole 
shoe; that the share be one-half an inch below the line of the 
sole shoe, and not exceeding one-half an inch to landward of the 
land side plane; and that no part of the edge of the feather 
should be more than three-eighths of an inch above the plane of 
the sole shoe, that plane being always understood to be at right 
angles to the land side plane. 

Another style of plowing, known as sod and subsoil plowing, 
which was introduced into this country about the year 1850, has 
worked its way very largely into public favor, and is probably 
destined to receive a still greater popularity as time continues to 
reveal its merits. 

Fig. 99 shows the manner in which the work is performed. A 
.skim plow is attached to the fore part of the beam, by clamps, 
which turns over from two to three inches, a, of the sod, depositing 
it, with the grass downward, on the sole of the preceding furrow, 
c. A larger plow, attached to the rear of the beam, follows and 
turns over the rest of the furrow, b, depositing it, in a finely pul- 
verized condition, on the top of the first or sod furrow. In this 
way the grass and weeds on the surface are effectually buried, 



Mechanical Conditions of tee Plow. 



191 



and are placed in a position to nourish the roots of the crop at 
the precise period when nourishment is most needed for maturing 
the crop. This kind of plowing prepares sod-ground for corn in 
the best possible manner. 




.7,, ;. ..1WV TwrtU 



Fig. 99. 
For land which is too bushy or too rooty with wild or s\vamp 
grasses, or where it is so sandy or mellow that pulverization is 
not an object, a third style of plowing is adopted which requires 
a special form of the plow. 




Fiff. 700. 
The action and movement of the furrow slice for flat furrow 
sod plowing is shown in Fig. 100, and requires no other expla- 
nation. 



192 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



The fourth kind of plowing is in stubble or old land, and is 
generally called stubble plowing. Fig. 101 represents this style 




Fig. /<?/. 

of plowing. The twist of the furrow is more sharp and decided 
than in sod plowing, as the soil is less compact, and can be pul- 
verized with less expenditure of power. 

Many side-hills which are fertile, are yet so steep that a farrow 
cannot be turned up hill, and must therefore be turned down hill. 
This requires a plow which shall permit the share and mould- 
board to swing alternately to the right and left of the land side. 

Since mowing machines have been used as a substitute for the 
scythe, a demand has arisen for a more level culture, dispensing 
with open furrows and every other form of surface obstruction. 
The swivel plow being adapted to meet this want, its use has 
been greatly extended, and few farmers now feel that they can 
dispense with them. 

There are other kinds of plows, but these five are sufficient for 
the cultivation of the land, and no good former can afford to 
dispense with them. 

Mr. Holbrook has made an effort to dispense with so great a 
number by adapting to his sod plows a mould-board for stubble 
plowing, and a skim plow, when desired, for sod and subsoil 
plowing; and he has thus undoubtedly greatly increased the 
range of usefulness of each plow. Still it is impossible to ignore 
the fact that each plow can only do perfect work when taking the 
exact depth and width of furrow for which it was designed, and 
in exact proportion to its recession from this standard does it 
depart from perfect work. Such being the fact, Ave hope to see 
a very considerable increase in the number of plows owned by 
each farmer, which will enable them to do much better work in 



Mechanical Conditions of the Plow. 



193 



all positions, and to grow a much larger crop upon an acre than 
they have ever done before. 

Before entering upon a consideration of the parts of a plow in 
detail, it is desirable to define those parts with accuracy, so that 
all ambiguity and misapprehension may be avoided 
I 




Mff. 702. 

Fig. 102 represents Mr. Holbrook's Sod and Subsoil Plow. 
A B is the beam; g i the skim plow; s t its standard; h i its fin 
coulter; j the wheel; k the bridle; a the point of the plow; a c b 
the share; b a' the feather; b the rear angle of the feather; a' the 
front angle of the feather; e u c v the mould-board; f v the sole 
of the mould-board. The portion of the mould-board in contact 
with the furrow slice, at the instant that it assumes the vertical 
TDOsition, is called the zero line, and is marked on the figure. The 
portion of the mould-board in the rear of this zero line is called 
the wing of the mould-board; d u is the standard; u c a the line 
where the portion of the mould-board in front of the standard, 
which coincides with the laud side, is called the shin. The curved 
portion of the plow, included in u v a, is the breast. The furrow 
side of the share is denominated the shield. The side of the 
figure towards the eye is the furrow side, and the opposite one is 
called the land side; m and I are the stilts or handles; o id and 
q r are the handle braces. 

ON THE VARIOUS MEANS OF HOOKING TEAMS TO THE PLOW. 

This is done by swing or swingle trees and bars, as they are 
called by some, or whiffle trees and eveners, as they are called by 
others. The length of the evener is generally three and a half 
feet; the length of the whiffle tree, between the hooks of the 
traces, is three feet, but these lengths are often considerably 
laised in order to meet special conditions. 
13 



194 Report on Trials of Plows. 

The strain upon a whiffle tree when used in plowing is analogous 
to that of a beam supported at both its ends and sustaining a load 
in the middle. The rule for estimating their strength is there- 
fore the same in each case; and we know that the strength of 
beams is proportional to their breadths multiplied into the square 
of their depths and divided by their lengths. It is to be under- 
stood that the depth here expressed is that dimension of the 
whiffle tree which lies in the direction of the strain. It is used 
to express what the farmer would call the breadth of the whiffle 
tree. Suppose a whiffle tree three feet long between the trace 
hooks; its depth three inches, and its breadth one and a half 
inches, according to the rule given above, we have * • 5 x 3 = 4 • 5, 
which, multiplied by the constant number 660 for oak, and 740 
for ash, gives, in the one case, 2,970 pounds, and in the other 
3,330 pounds, as the force that would break the whiffle tree. 
The same rule is applicable to the evener. The strength, thus 
found, is applicable only to the centre of the whiffle trees and 
evener, for it is obvious that the strain at the extremities is only 
half that at the centre. The ends may, therefore, be much less 
in depth than the centre, with perfect safety. 

AVooden whiffle trees ought always to be fitted with clasp and 
eye mounting of the best wrought iron, from two to two and a 
half inches broad, about three-sixteenths of an inch thick in the 
middle parts, and worked off to a thin edge at the sides. The 
part forming the eye may range from one-half inch diameter in 
the centre eye of the large tree to three-eighths inch in the end 
clasps of the small trees; and they are applied to the wood in 
a hot state, which, by cooling, embraces the wood very firmly. 

On the evener, the middle clasp has usually a ring or link 
welded into it, by which it is attached to the hook of the plow 
bridle. The two-end clasps have their eyes on the opposite edge 
of the whiffle trees, with sufficient opening in the eyes to receive 
the (S) hooks of the whiffle trees and evener. 

The mode of attaching two horses to a plow is so well under- 
stood by farmers that it is unnecessary to occupy any space in 
describing it. 

Fig. 103 gives Mr. Stephens' mode <>(* yoking three horses to 
the plow, which works very well in practice. In this figure, a is 
bridle of the plow; b the evener. five feet in length and of 
strength proportioned to the draught of three horses; c d and e 
are the three whiffle trees. The traces, though broken off in the 



Mechanical Conditions of the Plow. 



195 



figure at f g, are to be understood as extending forward to the 
shoulders of the horses. Between the evener and the whiffle 
trees the compensating apparatus is placed, as seen in the figure, 
consisting of three levers, usually constructed of iron. Two of 
these, h i and h i, are levers of the first order, but with unequal 
arms; the fulcrum, k, being fixed at one-third of the entire length 




Fig. 103. 

from the outward end of each. The arms of these levers are, 
therefore, in the proportion of two to one, and the entire length 
of each between the points of attachment is twenty-seven inches. 
A connecting lever, I, of equal arms, and twenty inches in length, 
is jointed to the longer arms, i i, of the former, by means of the 
double short links, m n.- The two levers, h t, h i, are hooked by 
means of their shackles at k to the evener, b. From the mechan- 
ical arrangement of these levers, if the whole resistance at a be 
taken at 600 pounds, k and h will each require an exertion of 300 
pounds to overcome the resistance. But these two forces fall to 
be subdivided in the proportion of the arms of the levers h i; 
two-thirds of each, or 200 pounds, being allotted to the arms, h, 
and the remaining one-third, 100 pounds, to the arms, i, which 
brings the system to an equilibrium. The two forces, i i, being 
conjoined by means of the connecting levers m n, their union 
produces a force of 200 pounds, thus equalizing the three ultimate 
forces, h I h, to 200 pounds each, and these three combined are 
equal to the whole resistance, a; and the three horses that are 
yoked to the whiffle trees, c d e, are subjected to equal exertion, 



196 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



whatever may be the amount of resistance at «, which has to be 
overcome. 

The method of attaching three horses to the plow, most usual 
in the State of New York, is shown in Fig. 104. In this case the 
length of the whiffle trees is twenty-four inches; the secondary 
evener is thirty inches, and the principal evener is forty-live 
inches; in each case measuring between the draft-hooks. This 
brings the horses very near together, but they cannot much 
exceed this length if one of the horses walks in the furrow. In 




, c=a >A 



Fig. 10&. 

case the two horses are on the right hand and the one horse on 
the left, the clasp-ring or hook which is attached to the plow 
must be placed exactly at one-third of the distance between the 
two hooks at each end of the principal evener, that is, fifteen 
inches from the right hook; if the two horses are placed at the 
left hand, then the distance must be reversed. In this case, as 
before, each horse will pull exactly one-third of the load, for, as 
the left-hand lever is just tw r ice as long as the right-hand lever, 
this last will take just twice as much power to draw it. If the 
total draught of the plow is 600 pounds, the left horse will pull 
one-third of it (200 pounds) and the tw r o right-hand horses will 
pull 400 pounds; the secondary evener being a lever having equal 
arms, the load on each horse will be just half that amount — 200 
pounds. If the nigh horse is heavier and stronger than the other 
two, it will be still more convenient, as the long side of the evener 
may then be somewhat shortened so as to enable the horse to 
walk more easily in the furrow. 

When it is desired to attach four horses to the plow, it is 
usually done by placing them two-and-two, one pair before the 
other, the evener of the forward pair being connected with the 
evener of the hinder pair by a long-chain called a soam-chain. 
The horses next to the plow arc connected by a neck-yoke, through 



Mechanical Conditions of the Plow. 



197 



the ring of which the neck-yoke runs. It is an objection to this 
method, that both teams are not obliged to do their fair equal 
share of the work. 

The plan recommended by Mr. Stephens obviates this difficulty, 
and compels each horse to take his proper proportion of the load. 




Fig. 205. 

It is represented in Fig. 105, where a is the bridle of the plow, 
with its swivel hook. A pully, b, of cast iron, six inches in 
diameter, mounted in an iron frame, of which an edge View is 
given in m, is attached to the hook of the bridle. A link-chain, c, 
is rove through the frame of the pulley, and to one end of it the 
short end is hooked; the evener, d, is hooked to a set of whiffle 
trees for the plow horses. The other end of the chain passes 
forward to a sufficient distance to allow the leading horses room 
to work, and to it is hooked the second evener at e, for the leaders. 
In the figure, a part of the chain, from/ to g, is broken off; but 
the full length is about eleven feet. In this arrangement the 



198 Report on Trials of Plows. 

trace-chains of the nigh-side hind horse are hooked to the whiffle 
trees at h h, and those of the off-side horse at i i; the leaders 
being at h k and I I respectively. In this arrangement the balance 
of the forces is perfectly preserved; for the hind horses and the 
leaders, as they pull at opposing ends of the chain passing round 
a pulley, which must inevitably be always in equilibrium, each 
pair of horses has an equal share of the draught; and, from the 
principles of the evener and whiffle trees, through which each 
pair acts, the individual horses must have an equally perfect 
division of the labor, unless this equilibrium has been removed 
for the purpose of easing a weaker horse. In order to' prevent 
either the hind horses or the leaders from slipping too much 
ahead, it is common to apply a light check-chain, o, of about 
fifteen inches long, connecting the two parts of the main chains, 
so as to allow only a short oscillation round the pulley, which is 
limited by the check chain. When this is adopted, care should 
be taken never to allow the check-chain to remain upon the 
stretch; for if it does so, the advantage of equalization is lost, 
and it becomes no better than a simple soam-chain. In all cases 
of using a chain, that part of it which passes forward between 
the hind horses must be borne up by means of a neck-yoke or 
other attachments to their back-bands or collars. 

ADJUSTMENTS FOE PLOWING UNDER WEEDS AND STUBBLE. 

Those who have plowed land infested with long w r eeds, bushes 
and tall corn stubble, well know how difficult it is to make good 
work and bring the surface growth beneath the plowed ground. 
Fig. 106 shows a read} r and effective means of accomplishing this 
object. This plan consists of a log-chain, or large tarred rope, 
having one end attached to the outer end of the whiffle tree of 
the off-side horse, and the other end hitched round the beam of 
the plow, mar the standard, as represented by the Fig. 10(3. The 
chain should always be only long enough to draw the tops of 
whatever is being plowed in along in the furrow, just in time to 
allow the furrow slice, when turning, to fall on it. If the chain 
is a few inches too Long, (he farrow slice will tall upon it, and he 
broken and displaced as the chain draws out. Take a "rolling 
hitch" around (he beam of (he plow, and (hen adjust (he length 
of the chain until the bight of it will remain on the turning 
furrow slice, only (wo or three inches forward of the point where 
it comes to rest. This will draw the tops of weeds, grass. Canada 



Mechanical Conditions of the Plow. 



199 




Fiff. f06. 




200 Report on Trials of Plows. 

thistles, and corn-stalks, completely beneath the falling earth; 
whereas, without such a contrivance, the tops would extend above 
ground, and if not already matured, would continue to grow, 
sometimes quite as well as if they had not been plowed in. Some- 
times weeds and corn-stalks are first mowed close to the ground, 
and hauled into the furrows, as the plowing is in progress. But, 
in this practice, the green material is not distributed as evenly as 
it is when plowed in without being mowed. A piece of half- 
inch round iron, bent in the form of a letter U is used instead of 
a chain for drawing under red clover or other crops. But, as a 
chain is more flexible than an iron bow, it has been found more 
convenient. When "the plow is drawn by oxen, the chain is 
attached to a stick about twenty inches long, bolted to the upper 
side of the beam, as shown by the preceding engraving. If 
hitched to the forward end of the plow beam, the chain will not 
always run far enough to the right side of the furrow to draw in 
the tops of all the stalks. However, if the chain is adjusted 
correctly as to length, the work can be performed quite satisfac- 
torily. 

Plowmen experience some difficulty in keeping the bight of 
the chain back in its proper place on the turning furrow slice. 
For this reason they are not able to draw everything under the 
slices, as is desirable. To obviate this difficulty, J. & A. Kilmer 
have invented the arrangement shown in Fig. 107. The attach- 
ment in question is merely a chain, A, connected to the plow 
beam and the double whiffle tree, and provided with a rod, B, 
which is called a "regulator" by the inventor. This regulator 
makes a bight or loop in the chain, so that the matter desired to 
plow under is caught by it and diverted toward the furrow, into 
which it is thrown and covered. 

DEVICES FOR CLEARING THE COULTER. 

In using the ordinary plow, especially on stubble fields, or in 
heavy grass laud, the angle between the coulter and beam fre- 
quently becomes choked to such an extent as to raise the share 
from its proper depth, and necessitate slopping the team and 
removing the obstacle by hand. In the accompanying engraving 
there is represented a very simple contrivance designed to remedy 
this difficulty. (See Fig. 108.) 

In the guide wheel is placed a stud or pin which forms a crank, 
and to this pin is pivoted t lie end of a rod of iron, which is carried 



Mechanical Conditions of the Plow. 



201 



along under the beam and around the lug of the share to the 
coulter, as seen in the engraving. As the guide wheel rotates a 
reciprocating with a vertical motion is given to this vibrating rod, 
so that as the rod advances to the front of the coulter edge it 
pushes the stubble from the blade and throws it down into the 
furrow. 

LEFT HAND PLOWS. 

In some parts of the country left hand plows are very much in 
vogue. The team is generally driven with a single line. In 
Fig. 109 we give an illustration of the mode of driving. 




Fiff. ?09. 

In this case the nigh horse walks in the furrow, and the single 
line is attached to his bridle. The off horse is guided by a 
"jockey stick," «, from the hames ring of the nigh horse, and by 
strap c between their heads. 

PLOWING GROUNDS WITHOUT DEAD FURROWS. 

It is sometimes very desirable to do this; we therefore give 
the annexed method of accomplishing it, taken from the "Ameri- 
can Agriculturalist." 

PLOWING GROUND WITHOUT DEAD FURROWS. 

Dead furrows are a nuisance, especially where hoed crops are 
cultivated; and when land is stocked down for meadows, deep 
dead furrows make an uneven surface for the mowers and horse- 
rakes to work over. When a field is 
plowed in lands beginning on the out- 
side, turning all the furrows outward, 
and finishing the plowing in the middle 
of the field, there will be a dead fur- 
row from every corner to the middle 
dead furrow of each land, and a strip 
of ground eight or ten feet wide on :Fi ff' / - 

one side of every dead furrow will be trodden down firmly by the 
teams when turning around. Plowing a field without dead fur- 




202 



Report on Trials of Plows. 





Fig. 3. 



rows is simply commencing at the middle 
and turning the furrow slices all inward. 
If the plowing be done with a right hand 
plow the teams will "gee around," always 
turning on the unplowed ground. When 
a field is plowed in this manner there are 
no ridges or dead furrows, and the surface 
is even, so that the operation of any 
Fig. 2. machine is never hindered. When sod 

ground is plowed in lands there is always a strip of ground 
beneath the first two furrow slices at every 
ridge that is not broken up. This is to a great 
extent avoided when the whole field is plowed 
as one land, and may be entirely avoided if 
back-furrowed. The accompanying diagrams 
will show how to plow a square field, or one 
of irregular boundary, commencing in the mid- 
dle and finishing at the outsides. Fig. 1 
shows a rectangular field. The plowman finds a point equally 
distant from three sides, measuring of course at right angles to 
the sides, and sets a stake. Then he finds the point equally dis- 
tant from the three sides at the other 
end, and sets another stake. From 
these two stakes to the corners of the 
field he turns two furrow slices together, 
and then plows the field, being guided 
by them, and occasionally measuring to 
the outside to see if he is keeping his 
•^' furrows of equal width at setting in and 

limning out, and on each side. In Fig. 2, a four sided lot, 
where the angles are not right angles, precisely the same rule is 
followed. In the case of the triangular field, the plowman begins 
by plowing about a single point, which, though awkward at 
first, may be executed with ease after a few trials. In the ease 
of the irregular live sided lot, represented by Fig. 4, it is a Utile 
more difficult to start exactly right, but the ruling gives a clear 
idea of how the furrows run. and it is always well to pace off 
frequently to the. outside of the lot — or rather from the fence 
starting at right angles to it— to be sure that (he portion remain- 
ing unplowed on each side, and at eaeh end of each side, remains 
always of a corresponding width as the plowing progresses. 




Report of the Judges. 203 



CHAPTER X. 

REPORT OF THE JUDGES 

APPOINTED BY THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OP NEW YORK TO EXAMINE 
PLOWS, CULTIVATORS AND HARROWS. 

HISTORY OP THE TRIAL. 

The Society has for several years had it in contemplation to 
make a thorough trial of the various agricultural implements 
used for preparing the land for the growth of crops; for putting 
in the seed; for the distribution of manures, and for severing the 
crops from the soil, as well as preparing them for market. 

Much delay occurred in prosecuting this design from its 
inability to procure instruments of sufficient accuracy for determ- 
ining the actual results obtained in a satisfactory manner. These- 
difficulties were finally overcome, and instruments were invented 
and manufactured for the purpose, mainly by Mr. Henry Water- 
man, of Hudson, the Consulting Engineer of the Society. 

It was at first proposed to make a trial of all the implements 
in a single year, but it was soon found that this would involve so 
large an amount of labor, and occupy so much time, that it would 
be impossible to procure a board of judges who could spare the 
time from their own private pursuits to do justice to the work 
assigned to them. 

It was, therefore, resolved to hold a trial of the implements 
for severing the crops from the ground and for preparing them 
for market in the year 1866, at Auburn, and the trial of plows, 
harrows and cultivators was fixed for the month of May, 1867. 

Extensive correspondence was had with the leading manufac- 
turers of these implements, after which the executive committee 
prepared a programme, which is given below, and appointed the 
following gentlemen to act as judges at the trial, viz: 

John Stanton Gould, of Hudson, K Y., Chairman; Prof. 
Benjamin Pierce, Cambridge, Mass.; Hon. Elisha R. Potter, 
Kingston, R. I.; Sanford Howard, Lansing, Michigan; Henry 
Waterman, Hudson, N. Y.; Peter Crispell, Jr., Kingston, N. Y.; 
George Geddes, Syracuse, N. Y.; Abraham B. Conger, Wald- 
berg, Rockland county, N. Y.; Joseph McGraw, Jr., Dryden, 
N. Y.; B. P. Johnson, Albany, N. Y. 



204 Report on Trials of Plows. 

NEW YORK STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 

Second National Trial of Plows and Other Implements, 1867 

PROGRAMME FOR PLOWS. 

The New York State Agricultural Society respectfully invite the makers of 
plows in any State of the Union, in Canada, and in Europe, to compete in the 
following enumeration of classes for the prizes annexed to each class: 

A gold medal is offered by the New York State Agricultural Society for the best 
plow in each of the following classes: 

Class I. — A sod plow for stiff soils. 

Class II. — A plow for stubble land in stiff soils. 

Class III. — A sod plow for sandy soils and light loams. 

Class IV. — A plow for stubble land, which will cut a furrow twelve inches 
deep, with three horses, which will raise the lowest soil to the surface of the 
furrow. For a plow which will turn a furrow of this kind not less than five 
inches wide, the Society offers as a prize its large gold medal. 

Class V. — A Michigan sod and trench plow. 

Class VI. — A subsoil plow in connection with an ordinary plow. 

Class VII. — A ditching plow for opening drains. 

Class VIII. — A machine for excavating ditches for under-draining. 

Class IX. — A steel plow for alluvial and unctuous lands. 

Class X. — A swing or side-hill plow. 

Entries. 

§ ] . Competitors must enter their plows at the Secretary's office, Albany, at 
least two weeks before the time fixed for the commencement of the trial. This 
rule will be rigidly enforced, as it will otherwise be impossible to provide lots for 
the trial. 

§ 2. At the time of making the entry each competitor will be required to file a 
statement showing, first, the price of the plow ; second, its weight ; third, the 
rule or the formation of the mould-board ; fourth, a statement of the valuable 
points claimed by the exhibitor. 

§3. 

§ 4. Each plow will be numbered in the order of its entry. A card showing 
legibly this number and the number of its class must be affixed to each plow. If it 
is lost or the numbers be obliterated, new cards will be furnished by the Secretary. 
No judge will make any record respecting any plow unless this card is upon it. 
AVithout a strict adherence to this rule it will be impossible for the judges to keep 
their notes correctly. 

§ 5. Every plow entered will be charged with a fee of twenty dollars. 

§ 6. As soon as the time for making the entries has expired, the Secretary will 
cause them to be printed. A complete list of the entries, with the numbers and 
the statements required to be made, will be placed in the hands of each of the 
judges. 

Dcties of Officers. 

The Officers of the Society will, 

§ 1. Stake off a sufficient number of plots, each containing a quarter of an acre. 
A space two feet wide will be left between each plot. 

§ '1. The stakes will he 'J', feet long by - \ inches wide. The plots will be num- 
bered from No. 1 upward. There will he lour .-take- to each lot, each of the four 



Report of the Judges. 205 

will bear the same number. The number of all the stakes will face inward toward 
the lot which they designate. The stakes will be rounded at one end and sharp- 
ened at the other. 

§ 3. Eight poles will be provided, each eight feet long, they will be painted 
white downward two feet below the top, a black ring six inches wide will be painted 
in the middle of the whole field. Two swivel hooks. 

Two hooks with their ends bent on opposite sides of the shank. 

Four gauges to show the breadth of the furrow. One for ascertaining its depth. 
One dynamometer. One platform scale of sufficient size for weighing plows. One 
tape line 200 feet long. One tape line eight feet long for each member of the des- 
criptive committee. A two-foot carpenter's square. A bevel rule. A spirit level, 
and a blank book and pencil for each judge. 

§ 4. They will procure a sufficient number of active and faithful policemen to 
keep all intruders from the plow ground, and to preserve order at the trial. A 
tent sufficiently large to shelter all the judges. A team for the special dynamome- 
ter trials, and a lumber wagon. 

Duties op Competitors. 

§ 1. Each competitor will furnish his own team and plowman. In the special 
dynamometer trials the team to be furnished by the Society. 

§ 2. They will provide themselves with wrenches and other tools for taking the 
plows apart when necessary. 

§ 3. The plots will be plowed in the order of their numbers. All competitors 
not ready for work when called on may be ruled out by the judges. 

Duties of Judges. 

§ 1. The chairman of the Board of Judges will, on the first day of the trial, 
distribute the plots of ground by lot among the competitors. 

§ 2. The judges will commence operations each morning at eight o'clock, 
lunch at half past twelve o'clock, and finish at half past five o'clock. They are 
particularly requested to look over their minutes every evening, and if their notes 
are imperfect to remedy the deficiency as early as possible. / 

§ 3. Before entering upon his duties, each judge shall subscribe a written 
declaration that he is not directly or indirectly interested in the sale of any plow. 

§ 4. The following will be examined as the most important points of the plow : 

1. Pulverizing power. 

2. Non-liability to choke in stubble. 

3. Lightness of draught, considered in connection with pulverizing power. 

4. Ease of holding. 

5. Durability. 

6. Cheapness. 

7. Excellence of mechanical work. 

8. Excellence of material. 

9. Thorough inversion and burial of weeds. 

10. Even distribution of wear. 

11. Regularity or trueness of turning and carrying the furrow slice on sod. 
§ 5. Lightness of draught alone, except in sandy lands, will not be esteemed a 

great merit. The plow which pulverizes the soil most, with the least draft, will 
have the preference. 

§ 6. The Society desire to encourage an increased depth of plowing in the State. 
Those plows, therefore, that are able to turn a furrow in a satisfactory manner, 



206 Report on Trials of Plows. 

so that the depth shall bear the greatest proportion to the width, will have the 
preference. The furrow wall be laid as nearty as possible at an angle of forty-five 
degrees. 

§ 7. The judges will be subdivided into committees, as follows. 
(a) A Dynamometer Committee. 
(6) A Description Committee, 
(c) A Weight and Price Committee. 
(<Z) A Time Committee. 
(e) A Committee on Quality, Material and Mechanical Structure. 

Each judge will form an opinion upon each point of the work of the plows and 
record it in his note book. 

§ 8. The point of each plow will be detached before it begins to work and accu- 
rately weighed by the Weight and Price Committee. It will be weighed ag"ain as 
soon as its work is finished. It will be deemed a point of great merit in the plow 
that shows the least abrasion. 

§ 9. Not more than four plows shall be at work at any one time, and one judge 
shall be assigned by the chairman to each plow. It shall be the duty of the judge 
so assigned to observe the action and work of the plow during the whole time that 
it is in operation. He will note the exact time occupied in plowing. If there are 
any stoppages he will note the exact time of the stoppage, and state exactly the 
cause of it. He will measure and record the length and breadth o each urrow 
slice three times on each furrow, the average of these to be taken as its true size. 

§ 10. The dynamometer will be applied on two furrows, viz., going and return- 
ing on each lot. The length and depth of the furrow slice shall be measured six 
times on each furrow, when the dynamometer is applied. The judge in charge 
will also observe whether the sole of the plow is kept in a horizontal position ; if 
it departs from this at any time it is to be noted ; the instrument No. 2 will enable 
him to measure the amount of departure. 

§ 11. In addition to the dynamometer trials on the respective lots, additional 
trials shall be made under the direction of the judges in some level field. Each 
plow shall plow one furrow without, and the next with the dynamometer attached, 
and so on until all have been tried. If desired, the judges may then try the 
draught by a windlass and hand power. 

§ 12. After all of the plowing is finished, the judges will carefully and critically 
examine each lot. They will designate the different qualities of plowing by the 
numbers one up to ten. Ten indicates the best plowing, one the worst, and the 
other numbers the intervening degrees of merit. As the examination proceeds 
each judge will place in the book opposite to the numDer of the lot the number 
which, in his judgment, indicates the excellence of the plowing. The judges will 
then assemble privately, when the chairman will inquire of each judge successively 
what number indicating excellence he has affixed to No. 1. The chairman will 
record such numbers opposite to No. 1. He will then ask lor the marks of each 
judge for lot No. 2, and so on until the merit marks of all the judges are ascer- 
tained and recorded. The plow used on the lot to which a majority of the judges 
assign the highest marks of merit shall have the preference for " excellence of 
work." 

§ 13. The records of the dynamometer trials slmll then be examined by the 
judges, and if they find that there is any very striking discrepancy between the 
different kinds of trial above mentioned they may cause the plows in which such 
discrepancy exists to be tried over until they are fully satisfied with respect to 



Report of the Judges. 207 

the draft of each. They will then determine the best plow for lightness of draught, 
which determination shall be recorded by the chairman. 

§ 14. The plows shall then be examined with regard to wear, those being deemed 
best where the wear is most evenly distributed. The plows having the greatest 
number of votes shall be deemed the best in point of durability. 

§ 15. The plows shall then be minutely examined with reference to the material 
of which they are composed (the quality of the wood and iron), and the best in 
this respect shall be recorded as "made of the best material." 

The plow having the greatest number of suffrages shall be deemed the best for 
mechanical construction." 

§ 16. Exhibitors will be required to present an ingot, cast in an iron mould, of 
the iron used in making the plow, at least one and a half inches thick. There 
must be an affidavit stating the furnace from which they obtain their pig-iron, and 
if more than one kind is used, the proportions of each kind used, and that the 
ingot is a fair sample of iron used in the plows. 

§ 17. The judges will closely observe the furrow slice in the act of being turned 
and see if that action tends to open or compress it ; they will also observe the 
force required to press the end of a stick into the furrow. If practicable the 
judges will not determine on the question of pulverization until they have had an 
opportunity of seeing the time that elapses before each lot dries after a fall of 
rain, and the growth of crops on each. 

§ 18. The plow which is finally determined to have the greatest number of good 
points shall be awarded the first prize as the best plow. 

§ 19. The judges shall in no case consult with each other or express opinions 
in presence of competitors. 

§ 20. No person except judges and officers shall be permitted by the police to 
enter upon the plowed grounds. 

§21. The judges will cause comparative experiments to be made to ascertain 
the influence of the coulter on draught ; they will investigate experimentally the 
best angle for its insertion, and also the most advantageous depth for it. 

§ 22. They will inquire into the effect of the wheel on draught. 

§ 23. They will ascertain the influence of speed upon the draught of the plow. 

§ 24. They will ascertain the effect of long and short beams. 

§ 25. They will investigate the influence of weight on plows. 

§ 26. They will ascertain the rate which the several parts of the plow consume 
power, as compared with the total draft, i. e. what proportion of the power is 
consumed in turning the furrow over ? What proportion for overcoming the cohe- 
sion of the earth on the land side ? On the bottom ? How much of friction ? 
Miscellaneous Regulations. 

§ 1 . The plows for competition must be exactly as they are sold to the farmers, 
except that each competitor will be allowed to scour the working parts. 

§ 2. Provision will be made by the Society for conveying the judges to and from 
the trial grounds. Lunch will also be provided for them. 

§ 3. Notice will be given of the time and place of holding the trial as soon as it 
is determined' on. 

PROGRAMME FOR HARROWS. 

§ 1. There will be but one class of these machines. A premium of a medal 
is offered for the best harrow. 

§ 2. The general rules for the trial of plows will be followed in the trial of 
harrows, as far as they are applicable. 



208 Report ox Trials of Plows. 

§ 3. Harrows will be tried next in order after the trial of plows. 
§ 4. The points to be determined respecting them are as follows : 

1. Which combines strength with lightness in the highest degree ? 

2. Which combines the best materials with the best workmanship? 

3. Which combines the greatest pulverizing power with the least draft ? 

4. Which is managed in the field with the greatest facility ? 

5. Which is least liable to clog in working ? 

6. Which works the most rapidly ? 

Persons desiring to enter articles for exhibition only will be permitted to do so 
on payment of five dollars. 

PROGRAMME FOR CULTIVATORS. 

The Society offer the following premiums for cultivators : 

Class I. 
For corn and root crops, best one-horse cultivator to cultivate one row, a gold 
medal . 

For best two-horse cultivator for cultivatipg two rows, a gold medal. 

Class II.- 

For mellowing soil and killing weeds, best cultivator on wheels, with device for 
raising and lowering the frame that holds the teeth, so as to regulate the depth of 
cultivation and to make the machine portable, a gold medal. 

Best cultivator having handles to guide it, and with or without small wheels to 
regulate the depth of the cultivator, a gold medal. 

The judges will carefully observe and express their opinion on each of the 
following points : 

1. Thoroughness and depth of pulverization. It is desirable the instrument 

should work deep or shallow, as may be desired by the operator. 

2. Adaptation to a variety of soil, such as sandy, stony, clayey, etc. 

3. Facility of control by the driver; this includes steerage, turning corners, 

raising or lowering one or the other of the parts at the pleasure of the 
driver. 

4. Comfort and convenience of the driver; this also includes his ability- to 

see the rows distinctly. 

5. Portability and convenience for storage. 

6. Ability to resist clogging, not only by grass, roots, and other ligneous 

matters, but in damp soils . 

7. Adaptation to side hills and uneven surfaces. 

8. Adaptation to the greatest variety of purposes. 

9. Durability. 
10. Cheapness. 

The instrument having the greatest number of merits and the fewest defects will 
be entitled to the prize. If, however, an instrument has many advantages, if it 
has one defect of great magnitude, it must be rejected. 

The same implement may compete in both classes if desired, but it will pay a 
separate entry fee for each class. 

The trial of cultivators will follow immediately after the trial of harrows. 

Place of Trial — Near Utica, N. Y. 

Time of Beginning — Tuesday, May 7th, 1807. 

The judges will meet at Rnggs' Hotel on Saturday, May 4th. 



Report of tee Judges. 



209 



The President, Secretary, Consulting Engineer, and Chairman of the Board of 
Judges, will assemble at Baggs' Hotel on Tuesday, April 30th, and will make all 
needful arrangements for the preparation of the ground and the reception of 
implements. 

B. P. JOHNSON, Secretary. 

State Agricultural Rooms, Albany, N. Y. 

The judges and competitors were all assembled at Utica on 
the 7th of May, as appointed in the programme. The grounds 
were all staked on the farm of Mr. John Butterfielcl, who had 
generously offered it, with all needful facilities, to the Society; 
and every preparation was completed, but it had rained nearly 
every day for a week previous, the ground was thoroughly satu- 
rated with moisture, and it continued to rain for ten consecutive 
clays after the 7th, the day appointed for the commencement of 
the trial. The land was, in consequence, like a mortar-bed, and 
was utterly unfit for a trial which would be satisfactory either to 
the Society or the competitors. 

It was therefore resolved, after conference with all parties, and 
with their entire assent, to adjourn the trial until the 10th day of 
September, to be held at the same place. 

At that time, the parties having reassembled, the trial was had 
in conformity with the programme. The following is the list of 
entries: 

PLOWS. 
Class I. 

F. F. Holbrook Boston. 

Class II. 

F. F. Holbrook Boston. 

Collins & Co New York. 

Class III. 

A. L. Brearley & Co Trenton, N. J. 

F. F. Holbrook Boston. 

Class IV. 

F. F. Holbrook Boston. 

Collins & Co New York. 

Class V. 

F. F. Holbrook Boston. 

Class VI. 

R. J. Wheatley Du Quoin. 

Class VII. 

No. 5 A. P. Routt Somerset, Va. 

Class VIII. 

No. 23 E. Heath Fowlerville, N. Y. 

Class IX. 

No. 14 Collins & Co . . New York. 

14 



No. 16. 

No. 17. 

No. 12. 



No. 1 . 
No. 18. 

No. 19. 
No. 13., 



No. 20.. 



No. 6 



210 Report on Trials of Plows. 

Class X. 

No. 21 F. F. Holbrook Boston. 

No. 27 L. D. Burch Sherburne, N. Y. 

On an examination of the preceding list of entries, it will be 
observed that the plows entered by F. F. Holbrook are more 
numerous than those of any other contributor, and that in fact 
they are represented in nearly every class. These plows are all 
constructed on a plan invented by Governor F. Holbrook, of Ver- 
mont, and now a professor of Agriculture in Cornell University. 

We were instructed in the most minute details of this plow by 
Gov. Holbrook, and the trials at Utica and subsequently at Brat- 
tleboro showed very clearly the influence of the warped surface 
which is generated by his method upon the texture of the soil. 

Governor Holbrook is as yet unprotected by a patent on his 
method, and we are therefore most reluctantly compelled to 
withhold a description of it, but we have no hesitation in saying 
that it is the best system for generating the true curves of the 
mould-board that has been brought to our knowledge. This 
method is applicable to the most diversified forms of the plow, 
to long or short, to broad or narrow, to high or low, no matter 
what the form may be, this method will impress a family likeness 
upon them all; there will be straight lines in each running from 
the front to the rear, and from the sole to the upper parts of the 
share and mould-board. None of these lines will be parallel to 
each other, nor will either of them be radii from a common 
centre. The angle formed by any two of them will be unlike 
the angle formed by any other two; a change in the angle formed 
by any of the transverse lines will produce a corresponding change 
in the vertical lines, and there will always, in every form of the 
plow, be a reciprocal relation between the transverse and vertical 
lines. Plows made upon this plan may appear to the eye to be 
as widely different as it is possible to make them, and yet, on the 
application of the straight-edge and protractor it will be found 
that they agree precisely in their fundamental character. The 
surface of the mould-board is always such that the different parts 
of the furrow sliee will move over it with unequal velocities. 

Class I. — Sod Plows for Stiff Soils. 

The only entry in this class was by F. F. Holbrook of his Lap 
Furrow Sod plow for stiff soils (No. <>.")). Weight. 130 pounds. 
Price, $20. 

The soil was of a still*, clayey consistency, and running at six 



Report of the Judges. 



211 



inches below the surface into a mixture of blue clay and gravel: 
it was in a very dry state, and had never been previously plowed 
to a greater depth than five inches. The sole of the plow during 
the entire trial run in soil which had never before been stirred 
with the plow. The furrow slice was ten inches by seven inches. 
The actual draught was 472 pounds; the draught as estimated 
for each cubic foot turned over, 972 pounds. It worked exceed- 
ingly well, pulverizing the ground thoroughly, holds very easily 
and keeps well in the ground, and has a remarkable power of 
self-adaptation to the furrow slice.* We ascertained by trial that 
this plow may be made to do very good work in a furrow eight 
inches deep and twelve inches wide, or by changing the cutters 
it will make good flat furrow plowing. 

Inasmuch as there was no competition in this class, we should 
have deemed it our duty to have withheld the gold medal if we 
had the slightest doubt that it was fully merited, but we have no 
doubt whatever upon that subject. The material which enters 
into its composition is of the very best quality, the workmanship 
is excellent, it is strong and durable, the draught is light, and it 
has every quality of a good plow in a very eminent degree. We 
therefore unanimously award a gold medal for this plow in this 
class. The annexed cut is a very good representation of it. 
(Fig. 110.) 




Fiff. 110. 

Class II. — For Stubble Lands in Stiff Soils. 
The entries in this class were: 

F. F. Holbrook's No. 6Q. Weight, 118 pounds. Piice, $17. 
Size of furrow slice, ten inches wide, seven inches deep. 



*In view of the extreme tenacity of the ground this shows an exceedingly light 
draught. 



212 Report on Trials of Plows. 

Collins & Co.'s B 14. Weight, 98 pounds. Price, $25. Size 
of farrow slice, thirteen inches wide, seven inches deep. 

The lot of land on which the trial was had sloped downwards 
towards the north. It may be described as a stiff clay loam 
which is underlaid from four to five inches below the surface with 
a gravelly stratum, consisting of stones varying in size from a 
hen's egg to a cherry, impacted in a stiff clay. It had never been 
plowed deeper than five inches. The plows, therefore, had to 
work in two inches of soil which had never been stirred before. 
The land had been saturated with water in the early part of the 
season, and in the latter part it had been baked by the fierce 
summer sun until it was almost as hard as a brickbat. A luxuri- 
ant coat of vegetation had sprung up under these influences, con- 
sisting of smart-weed [Polygonum acre), mild water pepper {P. 
hydropiperoides), mullein ( Verbascum Tliapsus), Indian tobacco 
{Lobelia inflata); several Asters, chiefly A corymbosus and A cor- 
difolius, heal-all (Brunella vulgaris), red-top (Agrostis vulgaris), 
quack (Triticum repens), Fescue grass (Festuca elatior), haiiy 
panic grass (Panicum capillars) — this was very abundant — scour- 
ing rush (Equisitum arvense), fox-tail (Setariaglanca), three or four 
species of sedge, thistles (Cirsium Lanceolatum and Carvense), 
golden rod (Solidago Ohioensis?) yarrow (Achillea Millefolium), 
fled clover (Trifolium pmtense), white clover (Trifolium repens), 
reabane (Erigeron Philadelphicum), daisy fleabane (Estrigosum), 
shepherd's purse (Capsella Bensa pastoris), dandelion (T-araxi- 
cum Densleonis), blue vervein (Verbena hastata), water hoarhound 
(Lyeopus sinualus), sunflower (Helianthus strumosus). Some of 
these plants grew together in patches, while others were found 
scattered in all parts of the lot. Besides these plants there was 
the stubble of the preceding year, which had been cut pretty 
high. Take it altogether it was one of the most difficult fields to 
plow that could be well imagined. The plowing was executed 
in furrows running north and south: at about one-third of the 
Length of the furrow a line running east and west divided the lands 
into parts differing essentially in their physical characters. The 
lower or northern end of the land was more unctuous and adhe- 
sive, of a yellow color, and having fewer stones than the upper 
or southern portion. It appeared to the eve to be more easy to 
plow than the upper part, but in every furrow tin- dynamometer 
showed a greater degree of resistance. 



Report of tee Judges. 



213 



The annexed Fig., Ill, represents Mr. Holbrook's plow No. 66. 

The next cuts, Figs. 112 and 113, represent views of the Col- 
linsville plow in competition in this class, and the separate pieces 
which compose it. 

The trials were made on lands one-quarter of an acre in extent. 
After a very careful examination and comparison, the judges deci- 
ded upon the several points as follows: 

First — Pulverizing power: One-half the judges were of opinion 
that Holbrook's plow pulverized the soil more effectually than the 
other. The other half were of opinion that the Collins plow had 
pulverized the land quite as well as the Holbrook plow. No 
decision was had upon this point. 

Second — Non liability to choke in stubble: The judges were 
unanimously of opinion that Holbrook's was superior in this 
respect. 

Third — Lightness of draught: The following is the record upon 
this point: 

Holbrook's JVo. 66. 



Width of furrow, 10 inches. 
Depth of furrow, 7 inches. 


READING OF THE DYNAMOMETER. 


DISTANCE IN TAEDS. 


HALF POWER IN POUND 
YARDS. 


1st furrow. 


2d furrow. 


1st furrow. 


2d furrow. 




88 
81 
78 
92 


94 

102 
78 
70 


16,000 
14,700 
12,400 
12,300 


17,600 

18,300 

11,450 

9,400 





Collins? Plow B 14. 



Depth of furrow same as the 
preceding. 

Width of furrow, 13 inches. 


READING OF THE DYNAMOMETER. 


DISTANCE IN YARDS. 


HALF POWER IN POUND 
YARDS. 


1st furrow. 


2d furrow. 


1st furrow. 


2d furrow. 


In hardest soil down hill. . . . . 


109 
119 

44 
53 


125 
119 

48 
53 


22,400 

23,000 

9,100 

10,300 


25,500 

24, 500 

9,450 

10,900 





214 



Report on Trials of Plows. 




Fig. 112. 




Fit/. //.'/■ 



Report of the Judges. 



215 



It will be understood that the "hardest soil" of the table is 
the southern or upper end of the lot, while the "loosest soil" is 
the northern or lower end of the lot. The " hardest soil" is the 
gravelly portion, the "loosest soil" is the tenacious portion. 

The following table is deduced from the preceding, and shows 
the average number of pounds required to draw the plow through 
each yard of the whole furrow: 





HOLBROOK. 


COLLINS. 


FURROW 6 BY 10 INCHES. 


FURROW 7 BT 13 INCHES. 


1st 
furrow. 


2d 
furrow. 


Mean 
of both. 


1st 
furrow. 


2d 
furrow. 


Mean 
of both. 


In hardest soil down hill.. . 
In loosest soil down hill . . . 

Average of work up and 
down hill, in hard soil . . . 

Average of work up and 
down hill, in soft soil .... 

Average of all the trials.. . . 


364 
363 
318 
289 

363 

303 


375 
359 
294 
269 

367 

281 


369 
361 
306 
279 

365 

292 


411 
391 
414 

389 

401 
401 


409 
412 
394 
411 

410 

402 


410 

401 
404 
400 

405 

401 


333 


324 


328 


401 


406 


403 



These numbers are reduced to the power required for each 
cubic foot of earth by dividing the actual area of a cross section 
in inches, and multiplying by 144 square inches, which gives the 
following table: 





HOLBROOK. 


COLLINS. 


1st 
furrow. 


2d 
furrow. 


Mean 
of both. 


1st 
furrow. 


2d 
furrow 


Mean 
ofboth. 


In hardest soil down hill. . . 
In loosest soil down hill. . . 

Average of work up and 
down hill, in hard soil . . . 

Average of work up and 
down hill, in soft soil. . . . 

Average of all the trials . . . 


768 
747 
654 
550 

757 

602 


770 
738 
604 
552 

754 

578 


769 
742 
629 
551 

755 

590 


650 
612 
655 
615 

631 

635 


646 
652 
623 
651 

649 

637 


648 
632 
639 
633 

640 

636 


679 


666 


672 


633 


643 


638 



On comparing these two tables it will be seen that they give 
different results. The mean average result of all the trials as 



216 Report on Trials of Plows. 

indicated in the first table for Holbrook's plow is 328 pounds. 
The mean result for Collins' plow is 403 pounds, making a differ- 
ence of 75 pounds in favor of Holbrook's. 

The mean average result according to the second table for Hol- 
es ~ 

brook's plow is 672 pounds, and for Collins' 638 pounds, making 
a difference of 34 pounds in favor of Collins. 

Before the dynamometer was applied it was the opinion of 
several of the judges who consulted on the subject that as the 
soil on the lower or southern end of the lot was the most homo- 
geneous that the indications of the dynamometer while passing 
through it would give the best indications of the relative power 
consumed by each plow, and it was accordingly resolved to make 
separate observations upon it. 

On comparing the power consumed by each plow while passing- 
through the more homogeneous portion of the furrow it will be 
seen that the average draught of Holbrook's plow was 590 
pounds, while the average draught of Collins' was 636 pounds, 
showing a difference in favor of Holbrook's of 46 pounds. 

SUMMARY. 

By the first table Holbrook has the advantage by 75 pounds. 
By the second table, in "loosest soil," Holbrook excels by 46 
pounds. By the second table, the general average, Collins excels 
by 34 pounds. 

The question to be determined is, which of the plows is of the 
easiest draft? 

From the indications of the first table it would seem that the 
Holbrook plow has the preference, but Collins' plow turned over 
twenty-one square inches more than Holbrook's and hence appears 
to do more work with less power. It appears from the experi- 
ments of Mr. Morton that only ten per cent of the power required 
for plowing is expended in turning over the sod, while the remain- 
ing ninety per cent is absorbed by friction and by the clearage of 
the soil. If this statement of Mr. Morton's is correct, then it 
would be incorrect to assume that the power required is in pro- 
portion to the square inches in the furrow slice, and therefore the 
indications of the second table would not he correct. 

A majority of the judges therefore decided that the Holbrook 
plow had the lightest draught, and they were confirmed in this 
conclusion by the facj thai in the homogeneous soil even by the 
second table the Holbrook plow was shown to be the lightest. 



Report of the Judges. 



217 



Fourth — Ease of holding: Unanimously decided in favor of 
Holbrook's plow. 

Fifth — Durability : Unanimously decided in favor of Collins' plow. 

Sixth — Cheapness: Decided in favor of Holbrook. 

Seventh — Excellence of mechanical work: Decided to be both 
equal. 

Eighth — Excellence of material: Decided in favor of Collins. 

Ninth — Thorough inversion and burial of weeds: Unanimously 
decided in favor of Collins. 

Tenth — Even distribution of wear: No difference of wear. 

Eleventh — Regularity or trueness of turning: Decided unani- 
mously in favor of Holbrookes. 

The preference was given to Holbrook's plow on the second, 
third, fourth, sixth and eleventh points, being five points in all. 
The preference was given to Collins on the fifth, eighth and ninth 
points, being three points in all, and were decided to be equal on 
the first, seventh and tenth points, being three points in all. 

As the Holbrook has the greatest number of points of excel- 
lence, and as it is not objectionable in any point, and as the points 
in which it excels are the most important ones, the judges agree 
to award it the gold medal. 

Class III. 
Entries were made in this class by A. L. Brearley & Co., Tren- 
ton, N. J., and F. F. Holbrook, Boston. 




Holbrook— 66, Sod. 
No ground, after diligent search, being found in the vicinity 
of Utica suitable in all respects for a trial of them, the proprie- 
tors very politely waived their admitted right to a trial else- 
where, and no trial or award in this class was made. 



218 Report on Trials of Plows. 

Class IV. 

The State Agricultural Society of New York has long been 
deeply impressed with the conviction that no one thing was more 
essential for the enhancement of the profits of agriculture than a 
deeper and more perfect tillage, and that no one cause was more 
operative in causing the diminution of several of our most 
important crops per acre than shallow plowing. In some counties 
the produce per acre is increasing, in others it is diminishing. 
In the former the plow runs deeper every year, in the latter it 
merely skims the surface. In these counties the plow rarely runs 
deeper than three inches. In some of our best counties the 
plowing is done as deep as eight or ten inches, but the average 
depth of plowing over the whole area of the State does not 
exceed four and a half inches. 

It is true that in some sections the surface soil is underlaid by 
a subsoil which, when first brought to the surface in large quan- 
tities, is injurious to vegetation; but there are very few subsoils 
in the State that are so bad that if plowed in the fall, and one 
inch of them is brought to the surface where it can be exposed 
to the ameliorating influence of the atmosphere and the winter 
frosts they will not perceptibly increase the crop. * If this pro- 
cess is resorted to every other year, almost any soil may be deep- 
ened in sixteen years from four inches to twelve inches, thus 
trebling the range of pasture for the roots of plants, and doubling 
if not trebling the amount of the crop. 

This is not the language of theory, but of sober and often 
repeated experiments made in every section of the State. 

We might write a volume filled with experiments carefully 
made by weight and measure to illustrate the importance of deep 
plowing, but we content ourselves with a statement submitted to 
us by an eminent agriculturalist and statesman whose name would 
be a sufficient guarantee for its correctness in any part of the 
United States, which is as follows: 

"Some two or three weeks since I visited a farm near here 
which a young man bought six years ago who used to work for 
me. When he bought this place it had a barn on it 30 by 40 
feet, and it held the entire crop that the farm was capable of 
producing. He built a barn the first year 100 feet long by 40 
feet wide and 20 foot posts, and stabling all below this. This 

* Mr. Howard dissents from this opinion. 



Report of the Judges. 219 

fall his barns are nearly full; ten or twelve tons more of straw 
or hay would entirely fill them. He has between 800 and 900 
bushels of corn, 550 bushels of oats, some rye and buckwheat, 
potatoes, and 500 bushels of carrots. The farm had been shal- 
low tilled for sixty or seventy years, closely cropped, and the 
manuring was not liberal. He commenced with some twelve or 
fifteen acres of sod, plowing it in November nine inches deep, 
manuring it the next spring with twenty-five two-horse loads per 
acre, and cross plowing it about four inches deep, and planting 
with corn, &c. The second year the field was stocked to grass 
with a grain crop, and another field of twelve or fifteen acres of 
sod taken up and managed like the first. In this way he has gone 
on from year to year, until now he has plowed all the plowable 
portion of his farm nine inches deep, which is nearly twice as 
deep as it had ever before been worked. Next year he com- 
mences to go over the same ground again in a similar way, 
excepting that the plowing will invariably be from two to three 
inches deeper than before." 

Entertaining these views the Society determined to avail itself 
of this trial in order to turn the attention of the farmers of the 
State to the importance of deeper plowing than they have been 
accustomed to, and to furnish them, if possible, with better facili- 
ties for accomplishing it than they had hitherto enjo3^ed. 

It therefore offered its highest prize — the large gold medal — 
for " a plow for stubble land which will cut a furrow twelve 
inches deep, with three horses, which will raise the lowest soil to 
the surface of the furrow, and which will not be less than five 
inches wide." 

It knew when it made the offer that a furrow turned so as to 
lie at an angle of forty-five degrees after reversal must have its 
depth in the ratio of its breadth as two to three, but it refused 
to assume any limit to the ingenuity of American engineers and 
mechanics, and sent out its offer to the world hoping rather than 
expecting that it would be successfully competed for. 

Two plows were entered for this premium, both of them of a 
very superior character, and both doing the work which was 
called for. 

The^ trial was in the same field in which Class No. II was tried, 
and the description of the soil given under that class will answer 
for this, only as the plowing was so much deeper in Class IV the 
difficulties arising from the impacted gravel were greatly exag- 



220 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



gerated. It may be that worse land to plow cau be found, but 
none of the judges has ever seen worse. 

The plow entered by Collins & Co., Hartford, Conn., was a steel 
plow known as C 3. Weight, 95 pounds. Price, $25. 

The plow entered by F. F. Holbrook was a cast iron plow, 
known as Plow No. 69. Weight, 139 pounds. Price, $24. 

This plow is furnished with two mould-boards (as is the case 
with all Mr. Holbrook's plows), one of which is used for sod, the 
other for stubble plowing; one of them may be detached and be 
replaced by the other in a very short time by any plowman. 

The judgment on each point was as follows: 

jri rs t — Pulverizing power: Unanimously decided in favor of 
Holbrook's. 

Second — Non liability to choke in stubble: Unanimously 
decided in favor of Holbrook's. 

Third — Lightness of draught in connection with pulverizing 
power: The following tables show the results for 

Holbrook's No. 69: 



Size of furroio turned, 12 inches 
wide and 12 inches deep. 


READING OF THE DYNAMOMETER. 


DISTANCE IN YARDS. 


HALF POWER IN POUND 
TARDS. 


1st furrow. 


2d furrow. 


1st furrow. 


2d furrow. 




1131 

126 
57£ 

47 


117 

116 

57 

54 


33,300 
41,200 
19,800 
16,700 


35,700 
35,400 
19,550 
16,800 





Collins & Co.'s C 3. 



Size of furrow turned, 12 inches 
wide and 12 inches deep. 


READING OF THE DYNAMOMETER. 


DISTANCE IN TARDS. 


HALF POWER IN POUND 
TARDS. 


1st furrow. 


2d furrow. 


1st furrow. 


2d furrow. 




70 

76* 

85 

98 


101 J 

844 
64 h 

SSJ 


25,900 
22,000 
33,155 
27,700 


31,800 
25,750 
28,000 
•J! 1.150 

! 







Report of the Judges. 



221 



The following table is computed from the preceding one, and 
shows how many pounds were required to draw each plow 
through each yard in each furrow. For example, if a rope had 
been attached to the bridle of Collins' plow and passed over a 
pulley, it would require a weight of 740 pounds, acting by its 
own gravity, to pull it one yard of the hardest soil down hill in 
the first furrow, and 617 pounds in the second furrow: 





COLLINS & CO. 


HOLBROOK. 


1st 
furrow. 


2d 
furrow . 


Aver- 
age. 


1st 
furrow. 


2d 
furrow. 


Aver- 
age. 


In hardest soil down hill . . . 


740 
577 


617 
609 • 


678 
593 


587 
654 


610 
610 


598 
632 


658 


613 


635 


620 


610 


615 


In easiest soil down hill .... 


780 
565 


752 
659 


766 
612 


666 
711 


686 
622 


676 
666 


672 


705 


689 


688 


654 


671 


Average of the two soils 


760 
671 


684 
634 


722 
602 


626 
682 


648 
616 


637 
649 


Average of the two soils 




665 


659 


662 


654 


632 


643 





On examining the tables it will be seen that the average power 
required to pull the Collins plow in the hardest soil was 20 pounds 
more than that required to pull the Holbrook plow; in the easiest 
it required 18 pounds more; the average of all the pulls was 19 
pounds more. 

This fully establishes the fact that the Holbrook plow has the 
lightest draught. 

N. B. — It will be observed that the above table also represents 
the power required to turn each cubic foot of earth, because the 
area of the cross section is just a square foot. 

Fourth — Ease of holding: Decided in favor of Holbrook's. 

Fifth — Durability: Decided in favor of Collins'. 

Sixth — Cheapness: Decided in favor of Holbrook's. 

Seventh — Excellence of mechanical work: Adjudged equal. 

Eighth — Excellence of material: Decided in favor of Collins'. 

Ninth — Thorough inversion and burial of weeds: Decided in 
favor of Holbrook's. 



222 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



Tenth — Even distribution of wear: The difference in this 
respect was very slight, but while every part of Holbrook's 
mould-board was evenly polished, there were a few points in 
Collins' which had evidently less rubbed. Slight as the difference 
was, there was a difference, and we were therefere compelled to 
decide this point in Holbrook's favor. 

Eleventh — Regularity or trueness of turning: Decided in favor 
of Holbrook's. 

SUMMARY. 

The first, second, third, fourth, sixth, ninth, tenth and eleventh 
points, eight points in all, were decided in favor of Holbrook's 
plow. The fifth and eighth points were decided in favor of Col- 
lins' plow, and they were adjudged to be equal on the seventh. 

The judges therefore decided that Holbrook's plow was the 
best one, and as it fully met the requisitions of the Society, they 
adjudged to it the Large Gold Medal. 

The annexed cut, Fig. 114, gives a tolerably clear idea of the 
appearance of Holbrook's prize plow No. 69. 




It will be observed that it enters the ground with a very low 
inclined plane, rises by an easy curve which elevates the slice 
into the air, and then by a succession of sharp twists in different 
directions it cracks the slice, and if it is in a tolerably dry condi- 
tion reduces it to powder. 

The Society called for a plow " which will raise (lie lowest soil 
to the surface of the furrow." This was done by this plow at 
Utica to the very letter of the requirement, but as we desire that 
the public may exactly understand the whole case, we must state 
that owing to the extreme dryness of the soil and its minute pul- 
verization, the lowest soil, alter being lifted to the top of the 



Report of the Judges. 223 

furrow, fell back again into the furrow channel to some extent. 
We did not consider this an objection, as it promotes that mixing 
of the soil which we have shown to produce such good effects; 
but it is proper to add that we saw this plow work subsequently 
in the soil of the Connecticut valley, where there was more moist- 
ure in the soil, and there, none of the soil fell back into the fur- 
row channel, but the furrow, twelve inches deep, was turned 
over as handsomely as could be desired and remained just as it 
was first laid 

The adhesive character of the soil in this valley enabled us to 
study the action of the twist of the plow to great advantage. 
We could see the horizontal laminations and the vertical and 
transverse cracks just as they were produced by the various 
curved lines on the surface of the mould-board, opening the whole 
interior of the furrow slice to the air. 

We are aware that we shall shock the prejudices of all farmers 
by the assertion, but we cannot refrain from expressing our delib- 
erate conviction that this plow put the land at Utica in a better 
condition for a crop than it could possibly have been put by the 
spade. We have seen very active laborers who have spaded 
sixteen square rods of earth a day to a depth of seven inches, but 
the average day's work does not exceed ten square rods a day. 
One man and three horses will plow two hundred and forty rods 
a day; or, in other words, three horses will do the work of 
twenty-three men, and in addition will stir it live inches deeper 
and leave it in a mellower condition. There can be no question, 
therefore, of the great value of this plow. Its performances 
astonished every one who saw it operate. A portion of the land 
plowed was the site of an ancient brick yard, containing a thick 
stratum of angular fragments of burned brick tightly imbedded 
in an indurated bed of blue clay, yet the plow passed through it 
without stopping, and completely pulverized every part of its 
immense furrow slice of twelve inches square. In two or three 
instances the plow was arrested suddenly by large boulders deeply 
impacted in the soil, but no part gave way in the least, even 
when subjected to this sudden strain. This, in our opinion, is a 
conclusive test of the great strength of this plow, and of the 
judicious distribution of the material which enters into its com- 
position to resist the strains and shocks which it has to encounter. 

After a most careful and thorough examination of all the sepa- 
rate parts of this plow, considered individually and in combina 



224 Report on Trials of Plows. 

tion, havmg applied all the tests known to us, and having seen it 
work in a variety of soils, and under very diversified circum- 
stances, we are compelled to record our deliberate opinion that 
this plow is one of the most valuable contributions that the 
mechanic arts have ever made to agriculture, and that its wide 
diffusion through the State of New York will add immensely to 
the profits of agriculture by greatly increasing the fertility of 
land at a very small cost. 

We subjoin a full and minute description of the plow and its 
constituent parts. 

Description of F. F. Holbeook's Plow No. 69 — Class IV, 
Entey No. 19. 

There is a point in every mould-board which coincides with the 
edge of the slice at the instant that it assumes the perpendicular 
position, and which is vertically above the sole of the plow, the 
exact breadth of the furrow. This is called the zero point, and a 
vertical line drawn through it and produced to the sole is the 
zero line. In measuring this and all other plows described in this 
report, we have dropped a plumb line to the plane of the sole 
and measured in a straight line backward and forward to the point 
from the zero line thus ascertained. 

Inches. 

From the zero point to the tip of the handle 41i 

From the zero point to the second cross-brace , 21 k 

From the zero point to the first cross-brace 16j 

From the zero point to top of flanch where the handles are secured lis 

From the zero point to bottom of handles 7 

From the zero point to rear edge of mould-board 3.} 

All the above measurements are rear; the rest are in front of 
the zero point. 

Inches. 

From the zero point to heel of land side 1 

From the zero point to centre of standard 13i 

From the zero point to rear end of sole of share 15 

From the zero point to front of standard 16i 

From the zero point to rear edge of coulter at top of beam 224 

From the zero point to angle of feather 21 

From the zero point to front edge of coulter at top of beam 25j 

From the zero point to fore end of feather 31 J 

From the zero point to point of share 33i 

From the zero point to point of coulter 35 

From the zero point to centre of wheel 43 5 

From the zero point to fore end of beam 51 $ 

From the zero point to centre of holes in bridle 52i 



Report of the Judges. 225 

The whole length of the implement, from the tip ot tne nandle 
to the bridle, is therefore 6 feet 1\ inches. The whole length on 
the land side is 2 feet 8£ inches, and from the point to the rear 
edge of the mould-board is 3 feet \ inch. 

Vertical Measurements. , . 

Inches. 

From the tip of the handles to hase line 34s 

From the highest point of the handles to base line 38 

From the second cross-brace to base line 31 k 

From the first cross-brace to base line 22 

From the highest point of the handle flanges to base line 19 2 

From the upper and rear end of beam to base line 17 

From the upper edge of beam, where the standard passes, to base line. . 22 2 

From the upper edge of beam, in front of coulter, to base line 22 

From the upper edge of beam, extreme front, to base line 20 

From the centre of lower hole in bridle to base line 16| 

From the centre of upper hole to base line 22 

The Handles 

Are made of oak wood. The left one lies 6| inches to the left 
of the plane of the laud side. The right handle is 30 inches 
from the tip of the left one. The distance (measured on the 
inside) between the handles at first cross-brace is 2| inches; at 
the second cross-brace, 17 inches. Width between them where 
they enter the flanges, 1| inches. From the lower end of the 
handles to the top of the flange, 9| inches; to first cross-brace, 
16 inches; to second cross-brace, 31 inches. The three last meas- 
urements are made upward in the line of the slope of the han- 
dles. They are 2^ inches wide and 1| inches thick. The first 
cross-brace is made of iron, cast hollow in the middle, and with 
flanges at either end bevelled to suit the spread of the handles; 
a bolt rod runs through it, headed on the right side and secured 
by a nut on the outside of the left one. The second brace is 
made of wood, shouldered, with the ends projecting through 
holes in the handles made to receive them, an iron bolt passing- 
through half an inch above them, headed on the left and nutted 
on the outside of the right one brings their upper part firmly 
together and prevents their outward flexure as the wooden one 
prevents their inner flexure. The rear standard, Fig. 115, B, 
rises upward and backward, having on its upper extremity 
flanges, c d, three-quarters of an inch deep on both sides and 
on the front and rear faces which receive the lower ends of the 
handles, and which are bolted through it. 

15 



226 Report on Trials of Plows. 

Beam. 

A step, Fig. 115, b, projects If inches forward from the front 
edge of the rear standard; a nipple, e, also projects forward a 
little above the step which enters the rear end of the beam, and 
resists its lateral movement. The beam rests upon the step, and 
is secured by a bolt running diagonally through it and through 
the rear standard, which is headed on the beam and nutted on the 
standard. Its size, Fig. 114, a, at this point is 3 inches vertically 
and 2| inches horizontally. At the point, Fig. 114, b, where the 
standard bolt passes through it, it is vertically 4^ inches and 
horizontally 2| inches. At the extreme front, c, its cross section 
is 2^ inches square. Its whole length, from front to rear, meas- 
ured along the line of its upper curves, is 5 feet i inch. Meas- 
ured along a straight line, from heel to point, it is 4 feet 11 
inches. Its upper surface rises from the heel, curving upward 
and forward to the centre of the front standard; from thence it 
descends in a slight curve to its front extremity. The following 
measurements, vertically from the base line to the top of the 
beam, wall more clearly show the character of the curves: 

From the top of the heel of the beam, a, where it joins the 
rear standard, 16| inches; one foot in advance of this point it is 
21| inches; at three feet it is 22| inches; at four feet it is 20| 
inches; at the fore end it is 19J inches. 

The vertical measurements from the same points on the base 
line to the under side of the beam are: At the heel, 15 inches; 
one foot in advance, 17^ inches; at two feet, 17| inches; at three 
feet it is 17| inches; at four feet it is 17^ inches; at its front it is 
17 1 inches. The material is of white oak, and its line of direc- 
tion is parallel with the plane of the land side. The land side 
face of the beam at the heel is 1| inches within the land side 
plane, and at (he front it is If inches within it. The attachments 
to the beam are, first, the bridle; second, the wheel; third, the 
coulter; fourth, the skim-plow. 

The Bridle, 

Fig. 114, cl, consists of ;i semi-circular iron are three-fourths of 
an inch in front of the fore end of the beam, pierced with seven 
holes which pass horizontally through it. the upper one being six 
inches above the lower one. A strap extends backward from the 
upper and lower part of the are 8J inches in length, embracing 
the upper and lower faces of the beam, which are pierced with 



Report of the Judges. 227 

three holes respectively 3|, 4^ and 8 inches behind the arc. A 
bolt passes through the rearmost holes, on which the bridle rotates 
as a centre horizontally. A bolt passes through either the 3i or 
4i inch holes, which secures the bridle in the line of the beam, or 
it may be thrust through holes drilled in the beam, one inch to 
the right or left of the central holes, which causes the plow to 
take more or less land. An extent of lateral motion, amountino: 
to 3^ inches, is secured by this arrangement, while the tendency 
earthward is regulated by the vertical holes in the bridle. 

The Wheel, 
Fig. 114,y, is made of cast iron, 10| inches in diameter and 1| 
inches wide. The land side face is a flat plate, perforated by five 
holes, each 3 inches in diameter, and having lateral ribs on each 
side between the holes. Its centre, when running at a depth of 8 
inches, is 9 inches behind the fore end of the beam. It is hung on 
a U shaped attachment, a c b, Fig. 84, having its right limb at its 
upper extremity sharply curved and prolonged to the right. 
Eighteen inches behind the fore end of the beam a bolt passes 
horizontally through the right extremity of the limb and through 
the beam of the plow, on which it rotates vertically. The axle of 
the wheel projects towards the left from the lowest portion of the 
curve. A cast iron button, having a pin on its rear extremity 
which projects towards the right and enters the beam about half 
an inch, is its centre of rotation. It has a shoulder cut at its fore 
end, through which the left limb slides upward and downward. 
A bolt passes through the middle, of the button and through the 
beam, having a thumb screw on the right side of the beam, by 
which the left limb of the wheel attachment is securely clamped 
at any point through a vertical range of ten inches. 

The Coulter, 
Fig. 114, h, is 2 feet 2i inches long; cutting edge, 10^ inches; it 
is 3 inches wide and | inch thick, and has a curved taper from the 
back to the point. The angle which its cutting- edge forms with 
the base line is 64 degrees. Its point stands 4 inches above the 
sole and \ of an inch inward from the plane of the land side, in 
which respect it varies very materially from most plows. It is 
set against the land side of the beam, to which it is secured by a 
clamp formed on three sides by a |-inch round iron rod, having 
screws cut on the ends which project beyond the right face of the 
beam. Cast iron plates, k and i, furnished with three semi-cylin- 



228 Report ox Trials of Plows. 

drical and horizontal depressions, are placed one above the beam 
in front of the coulter, and the other below the beam and behind 
the coulter. Ou these the rods rest, fitting into the semi-cylin- 
drical depressions. When the cutting angle is as above described, 
the rods are placed in the middle depression in each plate. If it 
is desired to vary the angle, so as to make it greater of less, the 
rods are shifted into corresponding depressions. An iron strap, 
m, perforated with holes at each end, passes over the projecting 
ends of these cross-rods, and is screwed tightly against the beam 
by nuts, which keeps the coulter firmly in the angle in which it 
has been set. The coulter is kneed inward to the furrow side so 
as to bring its land-side face nearly into the plane of the laud 
side. 

The reader will observe, on examining the figure of this plow, 
which we have given above, or. still better, the plow itself in our 
museum, that the line of the shin or breast varies considerably 
from any others. Instead of being curved, it is nearly in a straight 
line; it is a long taper wedge which insinuates itself into the 
ground very easily; and then, when the slice is once raised into 
the air, there is a sharp and sudden twist of the wing of the 
mould-board which breaks it in pieces and completes the pulver- 
ization. As an illustration of the lifting power of the plow, we 
may mention that we repeatedly found, on measurement, that the 
upper edge of the slice, when it was at the extreme point of the 
wing of the mould-board, was 28 inches above the bottom of the 
furrow. It may be further observed that this plow, like all those 
exhibited by Mr. Holbrook, are susceptible of four changes: first, 
they may be used as sod plows; second, by a change of mould- 
board, it may be converted into a stubble plow: third, by the 
addition of a skim plow on the front of the beam.it maybe 
changed to a sod and subsoil plow; fourth, by a change in the 
position of the coulter, it may be made to turn a lap furrow or a 
Hat furrow. 

The Sfo'm Plow 

Is attached to the land side of the beam by two bolts passing 
through the standard and fastened by nuts on the mould-hoard 

side. 

The Land Side, Mould-Board and Standard 

Are all cast in one piece, and are braced by a rod running from 
the rear of the mould-board to 'the land side east in (he same 
piece with them. The lower end of (lie mould-board has a 



Report of the Judges. 229 

shoulder into which the share is fitted and seemed by one bolt. 
The standard, Fig. 116, H, is 10 inches high and 6 inches wide, 
and, including the flange, which runs around the top and both 
sides, is 1 inch thick. It has an oblong opening, c, of 7 inches 
by 2|, the sides of which are also ribbed. There are live lioles 
on each side of this opening which permit a vertical range of six 
inches to the sole of the share. The land side is a continuation 
of the standard, and the breast is a continuation of its curve. 
The length of the sole of the land side is 6§ inches. The curve 
of the mould-board differs from that of the plow. The first line, 
coinciding with a straight edge, runs from the point of junction 
between the share and land side at the breast back to a point on 
the lower edge of the mould-board, 2=^ inches above the plane of 
the sole, which makes an angle with that plane of 6° 11'. The 
upper line runs from a point on the upper edge of the mould- 
board, 7| inches above the sole, to a point in the rear edge, 8| 
inches above it, and makes an angle with it of 4° 34'; the inter- 
mediate lines vary in proportion. The vertical lines, in which a 
straight edge coincides with the surface, vary more in their angles 
with the first horizontal line than the lower share. Near the 
standard this angle is 71°; the next towards the rear makes an 
angle of 83°; the next, 85°; the next, 87°; the next, 94°; the 
next, 97°, and the one nearest to the rear edge is 113°. 

Share. 

Length of the land side of the share, 4| inches; length of the 
point, \\ inches; length of the feather, 9 inches; distance of angle 
of feather from bottom of the mould-board, 2| inches. The 
coulter is cast in the same piece with the share; it rises at an 
angle of 43°, and is concave on its edge. The point is 1| inches 
broad. The sole of the share and of the land side both slope 
upward. A straight edge laid from the heel to the point forms 
the base of a triangle whose apex is at the junction of the share 
and land side, and whose height is \ inch. The face of the 
land side slopes towards the furrow side; at 4 inches above the 
base line it is \ inch inward. The top of the coulter is \ of an 
inch inward from the land side plane. The breadth from the 
angle of the feather to the land side is 7| inches. 

We now come to the plow proper, or to those parts which are 
directly concerned in turning over the furrow. These are the 
share, the land side and the mould-board, with their attachments. 



230 Report ox Trials of Plows. 

The Share, 
Fig. 114, n (outside), Fig. 116, g, (inside view), is made of cast 
iron, and forms part of the land side and part of the mould-board 
side of the plow. Its length on the land side is 9 inches; length 
of point, 2 inches; length of share on the mould-board side, Fig. 
116, a b, measured from the point, over the feather, to its inter- 
section with the mould-board, 16| inches; width from land side 
to the angle of the feather, Fig. 114, o, 10£ inches; length of 
feather, Fig. 114, op, Fig. 116, c d, 13i inches (measured on the 
sole); width of point, Fig. 116, a a', 1| inches. The feather 
extends 2 inches beyond the edge of the mould-board to the 
right, and is bolted to it by two bolts, Fig. 116, ef, secured by 
nuts. At the line where the mould-board meets the share at the 
breast its vertical height above the base line is 3| inches. At the 
point where the upper surface of the mould-board meets the 
share the height is 2 inches. Distance from the angle of the 
feather to the lower edge of the mould-board is 3^ inches. The 
land-side of the share begins to depart from the plane of the 
land side towards the left from the point of its junction with it 
at its fore end, at the point it stands \ of an inch more to the left 
than the plane of the land side. The land side face of the share 
slopes vertically inward towards the furrow side, in conformity 
with the slope of the land side. 

The Land Side. 
The sole of the land side, c, Fig. 115, is cast in a separate 
piece, 1 inch deep and 2 inches wide at the rear end, and ^ of an 
inch deep and | of an inch wide at the front end. It receives the 
lower edge of the land side plate on its upper surface. On the 
furrow side it has two semi-circular steps of 1£ inch radius, e and /', 
one being 6 inches and the other 21 inches in the rear of its tore 
end, through which it is bolted to the land side plate. Through 
these the sole is bolted to the land side plate, the heads being on 
the outside and the nuts on the inside. The holes in the plate arc 
countersunk to receive the heads of the bolts, so that they lie iu 
its plane. The sole extends \ an inch to the left of the plane on 
the land side, at the rear end. running out to nothing on the front 
v\\(\, where it joins the share. A straight edge, extending from 
the heel of the land side to the point of the share, will form the 
base of a triangle whose ;ipc\ is ;it the point of junction of the 
hind Bide and the share, and whose altitude will be \ of an inch. 
If the sole of the laud side is produced to the point, the end of the 



Report of the Judges. 



231 



line will be § of an inch above it; or it may be otherwise stated, 
that the sole of the land slopes upward and forward, and the 
sole of the share slopes upward and backward to the point of 
their junction. The object of giving it this concavity is to 
diminish friction and to give dip or earthward tendency at all 
times, together with steadiness of motion. The land side is 
inclined vertically inward, so that at 12 inches above the sole it 
inclines 1| inches from the perpendicular. The front standard, 
A, is cast in the same piece with the land-side plate; its front face 
forms a continuous curve with the breast, its radius growing 
smaller as it rises, until at length the line of the curve moves 
forward. It is flat on the land side and convex on the furrow 
side. It is cast hollow, which permits a bolt to pass vertically 
through it, its head being on the under side and a nut which 
screws on the upper surface of the beam. It is 3 inches wide 
and 1^ inches thick. Its upper termination is in a plate, «, 6 
inches long and nearly as broad as the beam which rests upon it. 
The rear standard is cast in the same piece with the land side 
plate, and is provided with flanges at its upper end, which 
receives the lower ends of the handles, as described above. 

We give the annexed cut (Fig. 115) of the front and rear 
standard, A and B; a and b are the flanges upon which the beam 
rests; c and d the flanges which support the handles. D, the 




Pig. 115. 
dog-brace. One of the teeth enters the staple seen on the inside 
of the land side; the other enters into a corresponding staple, i 
(Fig. 116), in the mould-board. The honk on the left end of the 



232 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



dog-rod catches into a staple, h (Fig. 116), on the mould-board; 
the screw end passes through the hole seen in D, and is secured 
by the nut. By this arrangement the land side and mould-board 
are held firmly together as one piece. 

The Breast. 
A straight line drawn from the point of the share to its junc- 
tion with the standard measures 22| inches. The ordinates to the 
breast curve, measured along this line, are, at 4 inches from the 
standard, \ of an inch; at 8 inches, if of an inch; at 12 inches, \\ 
of an inch; at 16 inches, if of an inch; at 20 inches, ^ of an inch. 

The Mould-Board, 
Fig. 114, r, Fig. 116, g, rises regularly from the base line and 
forms a continuous curve with the upper surface of the share; 
but a vertical flange, s, descends from its front lower edge to the 
sole. The rear edge of this flange is 19^ inches behind the point 




/•>>/. //<;. 



Report of the Judges. 233 

of the share, measured on the base line. The clog-brace D, and 
dog-rod E, Fig. 115, take the place of the thimble-brace formerly 
used. The dog D being more convenient, is preferred. A f 
wrought iron brace extends from the top of the rear standard 
diagonally across to the rear of the mould-board. It is 15 
inches long, and hooks at both ends into staples which are cast 
on these plates, and which, on the mould-board, is 4| inches 
below its upper edge, and 5 inches in front of its rear edge. A 
series of straight lines, which coincide at all points with a straight- 
edge running from the front to the back part of the mould- 
board. The first of these extends from the land side of the 
point of the share to a point in the lower edge of the mould- 
board, which is 2 1 inches vertically distant from the plane of the 
sole, and 18 inches distant from the point forms an angle with 
the plane of the sole of 5° 02'. Another of these lines, drawn 
from the point where the land side joins the mould-board on the 
breast, to a point in the lower edge of the mould-board 7|- inches 
vertically distant from the base line, forms an angle of 4° 08'. 
Another of these lines runs from the top of the breast to a point 
in the lower edge of the mould- board 11| inches vertically above 
the base line. The uppermost coinciding line at the top of the 
mould-board forms an angle of 3° 20'. It will be seen that these 
lines form angles with the plane of the sole gradually though 
not absolutely regularly diminishing as they rise vertically on the 
mould-board. Another set of lines may be drawn from front to 
rear forming angles with the first named line at the point of 62°, 
and at the rear of the mould-board of 85°, the intermediate lines 
forming angles gradually increasing from front to rear, but, as in 
the case of the other set of lines, the rate of increment is not 
entirely regular. If these lines are drawn upon the surface of 
the mould-board their intersections will form trapezoids; if the 
diagonals are drawn on any of these it will be found that a straight- 
edge applied to one of them will show a concave surface, while 
at the cross diagonal it will show a convex surface. 

The mould-board closes over the land side at the breast by a 
lip; it also has a flange around its upper and lower edge one- 
half an inch broad. The mould-board is attached to -the standard 
by means of the pin seen in Fig. 115, and marked P, which enters 
a thimble cast at the lower end of the inside of the mould-board, 
h, Fig. 116; it also rests on the projecting ear, O, Fig. 115, to 
which it is fastened by a bolt and nut. By this simple arrange- 



234 Report on Trials of Plows. 

meut the mould-board can be readily changed from a sod to a 
stubble plow, and vice versa. The dog, D, hooks into g, Fig. 
115, and into i, Fig. 116. The rod, E, hooks into k, and the 
nutted end passes through the hole in the middle of the dog, 
which braces all parts firmly together. 

While we have been compelled by the results of the trial to 
give a very decided preference to the Holbrook plow, we intend 
to bestow a strong commendation upon its competitor, which is 
in all respects a very excellent plow, though not as well adapted to 
deep plowing as Holbrook's. The material of which it is made 
is the hardest and least frangible steel that ever came under our 
notice. This was very strikingly exemplified, when a stone two 
feet long, eighteen inches wide and three inches thick was caught 
between the revolving cutter and the breast of the plow and torn 
out from ten inches beneath the surface of the ground. The 
cutter was pressed by this operation fully three inches to the 
right of its natural plane, but when released it sprang back to it 
again without injury to it or to any part of the plow. 

We know nothing of the process by which these desirable 
properties are imparted to the steel, but we can fully testify to 
the excellence of the article. It pulverizes the ground remarka- 
bly well for a concave plow, and buries the weeds and stubble 
tolerably well. In our opinion it would be better if it were 
longer and less abrupt; and we think the breadth from the land 
side to the angle of the feather on the share is too great, as it 
does not leave a hinge sufficiently wide for the furrow slice to 
turn in. We give the following full description of it: 

Turf and Stubble Plow C No. 3. Collins & Co., Hartford. 
F. F. Smith, Patent. Class IV, Entry No. 13. 

This plow is of cast steel, with the exception of the standard, 
which is of wrought iron, and the bolts and brace rods, which 
are also of wrought iron, and the bridle, which is of east iron; 
the beams, handles and one cross-brace are of wood. 

( ,'i in ml Dimensions. T , 

Inches- 

From zero to rear end of mould-board -H 

From zero to heel of land Bide / 5 

From zero to first cross-brace 5 

From zero to second cross-brace 10e 

From zero to extreme tip of left handle 33 

From zero to rear edge of standard °3 

Prom zero i«> rear corner of feather ' - 



Report of the Judges. 235 

Inches. 

From zero to junction of land side with share 17 

From zero to point of share 28 

From zero to extreme front of heam 52 

From zero to front hole in the hridle 531 

These points are all referred to the base line by a plumb line, 
and then measured horizontally backward and forward from the 
zero line. This line is found on the mould-board at the point 
where the furrow slice touches it when it is set perpendicularly 
on its edge, or by finding the point where a line at right angles 
from the land side as long as the breadth of the furrow slice 
touches the mould-board, and also above the sole as much as the 
furrow is broad. 

It will be seen from the above that the extreme length of this 
plow is 7 feet 2| inches from the tip of the handles to the front 
of the bridle. And the whole length from the heel of the land 
side to the point is 2 feet 9 inches. The tip of the left handle 
lies 3| inches to the left of the plane of the land side. 

Vertical Measurements. 

Inches. 

From base line to the tip of the handle 33 

From base line to the highest point of the handle 35 £ 

From base line to third cross-brace between handles 284 

From base line to second cross -brace between handles 18 5 

From base line to first cross-brace between handles H| 

From base line to top of beam at rear edge of standard 231 

From base line to top of beam at front end 181 

From base line to upper hole of bridle 20^ 

From base line to lower hole of bridle 14| 

Handles. 

An iron strap, one-half an inch thick and 2| inches wide, is 
bolted to the inner face of the land side, 8 inches in advance of 
the heel and 3^ inches above the sole. It rises upward and back- 
ward, making an angle of 48° with the base line, and is continued 
15 inches above the bolt. It is twisted or kneed inward so as to 
make its outer or left plane coincide with the inner or right hand 
face of the left handle, which is bolted to it and is in contact 
with it for 6i inches. This handle passes upward through a 
mortise in the beam, and after ascending 6 inches above begins to 
deflect towards the left from the plane in which it previously 
stood. It is two inches broad (i. e. on its sides) and 1| inches 
thick (i. e. on its front and rear edges). Below the beam its form 
is semi-cylindrical, and the bolts which hold it in contact with the 



236 Report on Trials of Plows. 

iron strap are headed with a clip which embraces their whole cir- 
cumference and correspond with them in form. Above the beam 
the sides are trimmed off on the edges so as to give them a well 
marked convexity. 

The right handle is bolted by two bolts, 6 inches apart, to the 
mould-board. A half inch wrought iron brace rod, 15 inches 
above the bolt, which fastens the iron strap to the land side, 
passes between the handles, and is 1\ inches long. Another iron 
brace rod, curved upward in the middle and having a screw cut 
upon both ends, passes through the beam and both handles; each 
end is secured by two nuts, one on the outside, the other inside, 
thus resisting both outward and inward pressure. It is 10| inches 
in leno-th, and is 11 inches above the first one measured on the left 
handle, and 14 inches measured on the left one. A third brace rod 
of wood, 15 inches above the last one, as measured on the left han- 
dle, and 17 \ inches on the right handle, is 18 inches long, measured 
as the others have been on the inside of the handles. One inch 
above this is a quarter-inch iron rod, which passes through both 
handles, and is secured by a nut on the left one. The distance 
between the tips of the handles is 28 inches, and as we have 
before stated, the tip of the left handle lies 3| inches to the left 
of the plane of the land side, the tip of the right handle must 
lie 24| inches to the right of that plane. Both handles are made 
from wood. 

Beam. 

The beam is made of oak wood. Measured along the top, in 
conformity with the curves, it is 5 feet 1\ inches long. Measured 
in a straight line, it is 5 feet 6 inches long. 

The following measurements, made vertically from the base 
line to the top of the beam at the points indicated, will give a 
tolerably distinct idea of its curves: 

Inches. 

From base line to extreme rear end of the beam 18 

From base line to the point where the front edge of the left handle passes 

through the beam 4.} 

I a advance of the preceding measurement l'.'j; 

From base line at 1 foot in advance of hist measurement 21$ 

From base line at 2 feet in advance of first measurement, which corre- 
sponds with the rear edge of the standard 23 J 

From base line at 3 feet in advance of first measurement 22 j 

From base line ai I feet in advance of first measurement 201 

From base line at 5 feet in advance of first measurement 18 

From base line at the extreme front of the beam 18 I 



Report of the Judges. 237 

Similar measurements to the under side of the beam: 

Inches. 

At the heel lCi 

At 4| inches in advance - 17i 

At 1 foot in advance 18a 

At 2 feet in advance 19 § 

At 3 feet in advance 18 3 

At 4 feet in advance 17^ : 

At 5 feet in advance 16| 

At front end of beam , 16^ 

The beam projects 2 inches behind the left handle of the plow. 
At the hinder end it is 3 inches deep and 2§ inches wide. At the 
standard it is 4| inches deep and 2| inches wide. At the front it 
is 3 inches deep by 2 a inches wide. 

The Land Side 
Is made by a single plate of cast steel, 21 inches long, and 5 
inches deep, and three-eighths of an inch thick, bevelled off at 
its upper front edge to meet the breast curve of the share and 
mould-board. At its rear end a wear iron projects three-fourths 
of an inch laterally towards the land, which extends 8^ inches 
forwards and then runs out, the land side and share being thence- 
forward in one plane. The wear iron also extends 2 inches diago- 
nally upward, and is then lost in the plane of the land side. At 
its junction with the share the plate is thickened on the inside, 
and a gain is cut on the end outside face, which extends 2 inches 
over the interior face of the share at the point they are bolted 
together. 

From a point 11 inches in front of the heel and 3 inches above 
the sole, a wrought iron brace, seven-eighths of an inch wide and 
three-eighths of an inch thick, crosses over to the mould-board. 
It is bolted to both through flanges which turn downward at 
angles corresponding with each plate. The land side is exactly 
perpendicular to the plane of the sole for six inches vertically. 

Share. 
A straight edge laid from the heel of the land side to the point 
of the share forms the base of a triangle, the apex of which is at 
the point of junction between the land side plate and the share, 
its altitude being one-half an inch. A straight edge laid upon 
the sole of the land side and produced is a qurter of an inch verti- 
cally above the point. The point is exactty in the plane of the 
land side and not set towards the left as is usually the case. It 
is also in a straight line with the sole of the share. The angle 



238 Report on Trials of Plows. 

of the feather is 12 inches, measured at right angles with the 
exterior face of the land side. There is no marked line of 
separation between the point and the rest of the share; its breadth 
is one-half an inch. The edge of the feather from the point to 
the angle is regularly concave on the sole. The length of the 
chord connecting the point with the angle is 19| inches, and the 
longest ordinate to the curve is three-fourths of an inch. The 
distance of the angle from the bottom of the mould-board is 5^ 
inches; it is brought to a cutting edge along the sole for its entire 
length, and does not vary anywhere from the plane of the sole. 
The vertical height of the breast at the junction of the share and 
land side is 4 inches, and at the standard 10 inches. The length 
of the share on the laud side is lOf inches. The upper edge of 
the share coincides with the lower edge of the mould-board in a 
straight line. An iron plate three inches wide is applied along 
the line of junction on the inner face and unites the two by 
means of two bolts passing through the plate and the upper edge 
of the land side, and two through the lower edge of the mould- 
board. 

The Standard 

Is of wrought iron, 2| inches wide and three-quarters of an inch 
thick; it is straight until it reaches the breast of the plow; it 
then curves forward to correspond with it. It twists inward 
when it meets the land side and has a gain cut in the lower end 
to receive the land side plate which is bolted to it; it terminates 
above in a plate six inches loug and three inches wide, having 
transverse slots cut at each end, through which bolts pass upward 
through the beam secured by nuts upon its upper surface. By 
this arrangement the angle made by the beam and the plane of 
the land side may be varied at pleasure. The land side is per- 
pendicular to the sole for six inches; from thence upward the 
.standard inclines to the furrow side; at 12 inches above the 
sole it deflects three-fourths of an inch. A line drawn from 
I lie point to the top of the breast where it meets the standard is 
l'.i.', inches, and the longest ordinate to the curve of the breast is 
1| inches. 

The Mould-Board 

\< of cast steel, which is three-eighths of* an inch thick. It has 

straight transverse lines, but its vertical lines are concave. We 



Report of the Judges. 



239 



did not perceive that the twist conformed to any mathematical 
principle, but it worked very well in practice. 

Class V — Sod and Subsoil Plows. 

The only entry in this class was by F. F. Holbrook, of Boston, 
and consisted of the plow used in Class IV, with a skim plow 
attached to the beam in front, as seen in Fig. 117. Entry No. 20. 
Weight, 150 lbs. Price, 




Fig. f&. 

A full description of the stubble plow will be found in Class IV. 
The sod and subsoil plow is No. 69, with a stubble mould-board and 
the skim plow attached. It works from 8 to 14 inches deep, by 
10 to 14 inches wide, according to the wishes of the plowman. 

In our trials at Utica, on ground as adverse to its good perform- 
ance as could well be imagined, it worked 11 inches deep and 11 
inches wide for the first two furrows, and 11 inches deep and 12 
inches wide for the second two furrows. 

The following- table shows the force which was consumed: 



FURROWS. 


Distance in 
yards. 


Half power in 
pound yards. 


First 


153 
151 
153 

152| 


45,000 
43,500 
57,500 
55,600 




Third 







The annexed table gives actual draught reduced from the above 
table, the draught per cubic foot, and the averages. 



240 



Report ox Trials of Plows. 



SIZE OF FURROW. 


DRAUGHT. 


AVERAGES. 


Width in 
inches. 


Depth in 
inches. 


Actual. 


Per cubic foot 
of earth. 


Actual. 


Per cubic 
foot. 


11 
11 
12 
12 


11 
11 
11 
11 


588 
576 
752 
730 


700 
686 
820 
795 


1 582 
I 741 


693 
807 



It will be observed that the average difference between the two 
first and two last, amounting to 159 pounds, is altogether too 
great to be accounted for by the very slight increase of one inch 
in the width of the furrow, and was obviously due to the hetero- 
geneous character of the soil, which varied very greatly in tena- 
city and density in the space of a few feet. 

In order to determine this matter more fully, we made experi- 
ments with this plough at various depths, the results of which 
are recorded in the following tables: 

HolhrooJc's Sod and Subsoil. 



Width of furrow, 12 inches. 



Depth in 
inches. 



Distance in 
yards. 



Half power in 
pound yards. 



First furrow. . 
Second furrow 
Third furrow . 



8k 
12i 



154 
146 

149 



50, 800 
55,000 
59,700 



In the folio wins: table these numbers are reduced to actual draft 
and draft per cubic foot in pound yards: 



DEPTH OF FURROW 



Actual 
draught. 



Draught per 

cubic foot. 



8$ inches 
10j inches 
124 inches 



660 
753 

801 



931 
861 

7 So 



This shows the heterogeneous character of the soil in a very 
striking manner. In the first experiment 121 square inches of 
furrow slice were turned over, with a force of 582 yard pounds; 
in the second experiment 660 yard pounds were required to turn 
over a furrow slice of 102 square Inches. 

In the first experiment, 711 yard pounds were required to turn 



Report of the Judges. 



241 



132 square inches; in the second, it required 753 yard pounds to 
turn a slice of 126 square inches. 

The work performed by this plow was entirely satisfactory. 
The furrow channel was perfectly cleared; the earth was tho- 
roughly pulverized; the grass, weeds and stubbles were entirely 
buried, so that they could not possibly spring up again; the plow 
ran very truly, so that a boy could hold it, and, as will be seen 
on inspecting the table, it consumed very little power in propor- 
tion to the work performed. The workmanship throughout was 
excellent and conscientious, and the material was as good as wood 
and cast iron could make them. 

We have no hesitation in awarding a gold medal to this plow. 

As heretofore remarked, plow No. 69 has a stubble mould- 
board, for stubble plowing, as in Class IV; a skim plow, to be 
used in connection with the stubble mould-board, for sod and sub- 
soil plowing, as in Class V; and a sod mould-board, for sod plow- 
ing, as represented in Fig. 118, — turning either lap or flat furrows 
by a change of cutter, and working from seven to ten inches deep. 




JFig. //<?. 



Class VI — Subsoil Plow in connection with an Ordinary Plow. 

The only entry in this class was by E. J. Wheatly, Du Quoin, 
Illinois. 

Entry No. 6. Weight of attachment, 20 lbs. Price, $10. 

This is intended to be affixed to any plow, and is not intended 
for any one in particular. 

An ordinary clevis is affixed to the beam of the plow about one 

inch in advance of the standard. From the centre of the right 

side of the clevis a shaft extends 3| inches to the right. A plate of 

iron is bolted to the rear end of the beam, near the handles, 4 inches 

16 



242 Report on Trials of Plows. 

long and \\ inches wide. A vertical projection descends from 
it 2 inches long. From this a horizontal projection extends 2} 2 
inches; from the end of this a vertical plate descends 8 inches, and 
is perforated with five holes, 1 inch apart and \ inch in diameter. 
A strong clamp on the right side of the standard is bolted to 
these holes, according to the desired depth of subsoiling. The 
stem hinges on the first mentioned shaft on the clevis, which is 
16 inches long and 1 inch by § inch. It passes backward, and is 
fastened by the clamp; it then bifurcates into two curved arms, 
11 inches long and 8 inches apart at the rear extremity. A knife 
shaped like the letter U, but brought to a lancet-shaped point 
beneath, which is 13 inches below the bifurcated arms, and 3 
inches wide, is fastened to the arms by two bolts. The upper 
arms of the knife are curved over towards the plow, having a 
slot in their extremities so as to change the angle at which it 
enters the ground at pleasure. The lower part of the knife is 
not in the same plane on both sides, the hinder part being an inch 
and three-quarters higher than the front edge; the soil dug up by 
the front edge is therefore raised vertically 1| inches, and falls 
the same distance back into the furrow channel from the back 
edge, which pulverizes it very well. 

The plow was first tried alone, without the attachment for 
subsoiling, with the following result: 

Furrow, 7 inches deep and 8 inches wide. 

132 yards — Half power in pound yards, 34,600 pounds; actual 
power in }^ard pounds, 524 pounds. 

After the attachment was applied, the furrow was ten inches 
deep, or three inches lower than before, which was therefore the 
amount of subsoiling actually performed. The power required to 
accomplish this work, viz., a furrow slice 7 inches deep and 8 
inches wide, turned over, and 3 inches deep and < s inches wide, 
pulverized at the bottom of the furrow, was 7 1 yards. 34,400 
pounds hall* power in pound yards; actual power in pound yards, 
876. 

The power required, therefore, to subsoil three inches deep 
was 352 pounds, or 117 pounds Tor cadi inch that was subsoiled. 

Mr. Holbrook's Sod and Subsoil, going in one inch deeper and 
taking a furrow three inches broader, absorbed 1 ( J4 pounds less 
of power than did this of -Mr. Wheal ley's. 

We were all very much pleased wiih the appearance of the 
invention and we confidently expected that a trial would demon- 



Report of the Judges. 243 

strate its usefulness; but in the face of the facts disclosed by the 
trial we were reluctantly compelled to withhold a testimonial of 
the approval of the Society. 

Class VII — A Ditching Plow for Opening Deains. 

It will be seen by the list of entries that A. P. Routt, of Som- 
erset, Va., was the only competitor, while the premium is awarded 
to N. Hawks, of Maine. Mr. Routt has addressed a protest to the 
board of judges, and it is acknowledged that the award was an 
improper one. 

The blame of this transaction rests wholly on the shoulders of 
the chairman of the board of judges, whose duty it was to see 
that every implement competing for a prize was properly entered 
in the class for which it was competing. On account of sickness 
in Mr. Routt's family his plow was tried out of its regular order 
so that he might go home. Mr. Hawk's plow was tried in the 
regular order, and Mr. Routt was therefore not present to chal- 
lenge his right to do so. The chairman having seen his name on 
the entry list supposed it was quite right, and permitted him to 
make the trial, without actually looking, as he ought to have 
done, to see whether this was the class for which he had entered. 
The mistake was not discovered until the premium was awarded, 
and after this it was of course impossible to withdraw it. 

The ditcher consists of a double mould-board plow, which makes 
the ditch, and is followed by a roller formed of two cones united 
by their bases, which are two feet in diameter, the axis being 13 
feet long. Two wrought iron arms proceeding from the rear of 
the plow frame and extending laterally and backward embrace 
each end of the axis, and draws the cones after the plow which 
pack and smooth the side of the ditch. After seeing it work, we 
did not think that- it was a desirable implement for the farmer, 
and we should not, therefore, have awarded a premium to it under 
any circumstances. 

The ditching plow of Mr. Hawks is one part of a machine 
which may be employed for various purposes. It can be used as 
a ditching plow, a cultivator, as a seed planter and a potato 
digger. Weight of the whole combined machine 180 pounds. 
Price, $50. We took a memorandum ot the weight and price of 
the ditching plow alone, but it is now obliterated, and therefore 
we are unable to give it. 

Considered as a seed planter, it may be described as a double 



244 Report on Trials of Plows. 

mould-board plow cast in two pieces, viz.: the point and shares, 
and the wings or mould-boards. The beam is of oak, and is 45 
inches long. The wheel, which is attached in the same way as 
Gov. Holbrook's, which we have already described, is 7 inches in 
diameter and 2 inches broad. The clevis is the same also as Gov. 
Holbrook's. A pair of cast iron arms rise from the upper edge 
of the mould-boards on each side, 9 inches to the rear of the 
breast, in a curved direction towards beam and bolt, through its 
heel. These arms descend six inches, and are flanged below. From 
these flanges a box is supported in which are inserted the gudgeons 
of the driving wheel, which can be raised or lowered at pleasure. 
The driving wheel is 11 inches in diameter and 1 inch wide. 
Two pins are inserted on each side of the driving wheel, which 
strike on cones which communicate a vibratory motion to the 
slides, which open the valves for the deposit of the seed. By 
increasing the pins, the quickness of the vibrations and conse- 
quently the amount of seed sown is increased ; by diminishing 
the number of pins, the quantity sown can be diminished. A 
pair of hinged ears, 8 inches above the sole of the mould-boards, 
project in the rear of the handles, from which brace-rods (half an 
inch in diameter) extend backwards 12 inches to the covering 
irons. Another pair of brace-rods extend from the first pair, at 
the front of the covering irons, upwards to the handles. Eighteen 
inches above the sole of the mould-board one end has a ring 
which embraces the first pair of braces, and the other is bolted 
to the handles. The covering irons are 1 inch apart behind and 
9 inches apart in front, sloping to the right and left as they 
descend to the ground. They are 14 inches long, and are curved 
upward and backward from below. A rib is cast about the mid- 
dle of the covers, 10 inches hiiHi in front and 2 inches hiirh 
behind, which flare outward. A pair of ears are casl about the 
middle of the covers, to which a cross-rod is bolted, from the 
centre of which a standard rises, which is surmounted by a cross- 
bar; from the ends braces extend to the bandies; on each side a 
thumb-screw, on the top of the standard, regulates the depth of 
the hill. A pair of eyes, 1 inch in diameter and ten inches apart, 
are screwed into the top of the beam : between these a wooden 
roller is inserted, from the centre of which a wooden bar runs 
laterally. A marker is placed at the end of this bar, which can 
be moved backward and forward, and secured by a thumb-screw 
at any point, so as to make the marks for the furrow at any 



Report of the Judges. 



245 




required distance. A drawer vibrates at each motion of the slide, 
which regulates the egress of the seed. Two projecting pins 
in the downward channel play up and down and prevent clogging. 

The description above 
given, in connection with 
the drawing, Fig. 119, will, 
we trust, give a tolerable 
idea of the implement when 
adjusted for planting seed. 
When the boxes and 
planting machinery are de- 
tached it is converted into 
Ing. 779. a j 10rse noe or cultivator, 

by hinging a bar from the rear end of each mould-board to 
which cultivator teeth are attached; these arms are expansible 
to any required width by means of a pair of wrought iron arcs, 
one of which is attached to the middle of each bar; they are per- 
forated with holes, and can therefore be used to set the arms at 
any angle by thrusting a pin through these holes. 

Fig. 120 shows the machine when used as a cultivator. When 
used as a ditcher, the cov- 
erers seen behind in Fig. 
119 are reversed and hinged 
to the rear of the mould- 
boards by means of slots in 
the sides and screw bolts 
they may be raised higher 
as the ditch deepens. It 
really did excellent work 
as a ditcher, and by passing backward and forward a few times a 
single horse would cut out a very neat ditch with very little 
labor and great neatness of execution. We deemed its work 
much better than Routt's in all respects. 

Class VIII — A Machine foe Excavating Ditches for Under- 
draining. 

There was only a single entry in this class, which was made by 
E. Heath, of Fowlerville, N. Y. 

We have mislaid our notes of the weight and price of this 
machine, or we neglected to procure them. Some idea of the 
machine will be obtained by an examination of the annexed 




No* 4. 



Fig. 720. 



246 Report on Trials of Plows. 

Fig. 121. It runs upon a light wooden railroad, or rather 
tram, road; as soon as it has passed over one pair of rails they 
are taken up by an attendant and replaced in front of the machine. 
What is called the shovel is more like a chisel which enters tho 
ground diagonally. It is moved forward by means of a chain 
which is anchored to a stake at some distance ahead, and the 
other end is slowly wound round a pulley which revolves on the 
machine. The shovel runs down to the bottom of the ditch at 
each plunge, and raises the earth to the surface, where it is 
caught by the scrapers, by which it is removed about two feet 
from the sides of the ditch. The power required to operate the 
machine is two horses, a driver, and a man to remove the rails, 
or an expert man may do both. It will cut a tile drain at the rate 
of from four to six rods an hour in ordinary ground. It cut a 
ditch in our presence, in a very adhesive clay soil, two feet deep, 
taking out six lineal inches at every revolution of the sweep; 
while doing this it was worked with only one horse and one 
man. It appears complicated on looking at the figure; but it is 
in reality very simple. There is not a single geared wheel used 
in its construction; it can all be made by any blacksmith or car- 
penter, and if anything breaks it can be repaired in any village 
in the country. There are only 100 pounds of castings used 
about the whole machine, and any one that is competent to run a 
mowing machine or a threshing machine will have no difficulty 
in operating this one. 

We were unanimously of the opinion that this machine is very 
far in advance of any contrivance for the excavation of ditches 
that we have ever seen, and that it is a practical, economical and 
useful implement which is greatly demanded at the present time. 
We do not doubt that its proprietors will be enabled to simplify 
and improve its details, and to strengthen some of its parts; but 
in our judgment the principle is a good one, and will meet the 
approbation of the increasing number who desire to increase the 
products of their farms by underdraining. We therefore award 
to it a gold medal. 

Class IX — A Steel Plow for Alluvial and Unctuous Lands. 

The only plow entered in this class was that of Collins & Co., 
of New York. 

PlowC, No. 3. Entry No. 1. Weight, i»0 pounds. Price, $25. 
There was no land in the vicinity of LTtica which was adapted 



Report of the Judges. 



247 




248 Report on Trials of Plows. 

for au actual trial of this plow in the kind of land for which it 
was specially intended; but from the trials which we made in 
adhesive soils, from a study of its shape and a test of the material 
of which it was composed, we had not the shadow of a doubt of 
its admirable adaptation to work in this kind of soil with entire 
success, and therefore awarded to it a gold medal. 

Class X — A Swing or Sideihll Plow. 

Two entries were made in this class, viz.: F. F. Holbrook, No. 
6, Swivel Plow; weight, 136 pounds; price, $20. Lyman D. 
Burch, Sherburne; weight, 110 pounds; price, $15. 

The plow made by Mr. Holbrook is laid out by an exceedingly 
ingenious process, with which we were made fully acquainted, but 
which we cannot make public, as it is not patented. We exceed- 
ingly regret the necessity for this enforced reticence, as the dia- 
grams given in full would elucidate very clearly some important, 
points in the general theory of the plow, and in the special theory 
of swivel plows, which we think are at present very ill under- 
stood by the users of plows. A very good idea of Mr. Holbrook'y 
plow will be obtained by an examination of the annexed Fig. 122. 




Jffff. /22. 

It, like all other swivel plows, consists of a half of two mould- 
boards combined in one: but, unlike others, it is so combined ;is 
that the one-half shall help the other all the way from the zero 
line forwards, so that a full sized furrow slice may be properly 
turned. It worked Well in all respects, was very strong, and was 
thoroughly well made in all its parts. It pulverized the gfroiind 

very thoroughly, and buried the weeds very well. Its chief 



Report of the Judges. 



249 



characteristic was its pulverizing power, and the soft, velvety feel 
of the furrows under the foot which had been plowed with it. 

Burch's plow was a very peculiar one, and was quite novel in 
its construction. The leading ideas sought to be embodied in it 
are lightness, strength and cheapness. We have no drawing of 
this plow, but will try to describe it as well as we are able. The 
beam is of cast iron, strengthened by a frame work of wrought 
iron rods. A hook cast on the rear end of the beam holds a brace. 
An iron bar, six inches in advance of the hook, projects laterally 
on each side of the beam, another bar of the same size is placed 
on the front end of the beam. One-half inch rods are stretched 
between these cross-bars, parallel to the beam; are carried round 
through the front bar, and connect in the middle 1^ inches from 
the front bar. At either end lf-inch hooks are inserted, which 
hold the head block to which the clevis is attached. One foot in 
advance of the first mentioned hook is a horn. Nineteen inches 
in advance is a pair of straps curving laterally outward, down- 
ward and backward. The coulter perforated through the shank 
is held by this rod passing the ends of these straps. The coulter 
can be shifted laterally on this rod, and the upper end catches in 
the horn on either side of the beam. The coulter is spatula-shaped, 
nine inches long and three inches broad, sharpened on both sides. 
We give a figure of share: 




Fig. 123. 

It will be seen that the share has on its under side a brace or 
strengthener of the point which is cast with it. It extends through 
a slot or cavity of the mould-board, back along the two wings or 
prongs of the point, its object being to give strength to the point 
and allow of its being made of hard iron, which makes it much 



250 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



more durable. It is difficult to describe the mould-board, which 
is of no regular figure. It approximates in its general outline to 
a cone, but has been pared away at different points to suit the 
views of the maker, and to adapt it to what he conceives to be 
the wants of the farmer. 

The distance across, from the land side to the point of the 
feather, is 10i inches. The length from the point of the plow to 
the point of the feather is 14 inches. Length of the land side, 
23 1 inches. From the point to the standard is 15 inches. 

It worked very easily, and was very strongly made, and was of 
durable materials. Its great defect was a want of pulverizing 
power; the earth was hard after being plowed. 

The judges decided as follows between these two plows: 

First. Pulverizing power: Very greatly in favor of Holbrook's. 

Second. Non-liability to choke in stubble: Equal in this respect. 

Third. Lightness of draft. 



PLOWS. 

i 


FURROW. 


DRAUGHT. 


AVERAGES. 


Width, 
inches. 


Depth, 

inches. 


Actual. 


Per cubic foot 
of earth. 


Actual. 


Per cubic foot 
of earth. 


Holbrook's Swivel 
Burch's Swivel.. . 


12 
12 
12 
12 


7 
7 
7 
7 


618 

593 
507 
514 


1,059 

1,015 

869 

881 


1 605 
?510 


1 
1,037 

875 



At a subsequent trial of their draft, side by side, in soil as 
nearly alike as possible, Holbrook's average draft was 502 pound 
yards. Burch's average draft was 432 pounds. In the first case, 
Buch's was lightest by 95 pounds, or 15.7 per cent. In the second 
case he was lighter by 70 pounds, or 13.9 per cent. The merit of 
lightness of draft was therefore awarded to Burch. 

Fourth — Ease of holding: Decided in favor of Burch. 

Fifth — Durability: Both equal in this respect. 

Sixth — Cheapness: In favor of Burch. 

Seventh — Excellence of mechanical work: In favor of Hol- 
brook. 

Eighth — Excellence of material: Both equal in this respect. 

Ninth — Thorough inversion and burial of weeds: Hoi brook. 

Tenth — Even distribution of wear: Holbrook, slightly. 

Eleventh —Regularity or trueness of turning: Holbrook. 



Report of the Judges. 251 

It will be seen that five of these points were decided in favor 
of Holbrook, three in favor of Burch, and in three points they 
were judged to be equal. 

On this state of facts the question was discussed which was 
entitled to the medal, and the question finally turned on the com- 
parative merits of easy draft and thorough pulverization. One 
portion of the judges held that if Holbrook consumed more power 
he did the most work; that is, he did that which it was the object 
of plowing to accomplish, viz., thorough pulverization, while 
Burch did not. Others contended that the greater ease of draught 
of Burch's plow entitled him to the premium. On a division it 
was found that four of the judges were in favor of awarding the 
premium to Holbrook and four to Burch. After a full reconsid- 
eration the vote remained the same, and therefore no premium 
can be given in this class. 

In point of cheapness Mr. Burch's plow was very remarkable. 
The following statement shows the cost of each part: 

Plow beam 37 pounds. Casting, 6 cents $2 22 

Handle yoke 5 " " 6 « 30 

Crotch 4 « " 6 " 24 

Roller 5 " " 6 " 30 

Coulter guide 2 " " 6 " 12 

Mould-board 19 " " 5 " 95 

. Shoe 7 " " 5 " 35 

Point 6 " " 5 " 30 

Wheel iron 5 " 30 

Whole weight 90 " $5 08 

The whole cost of the plow complete , . $ 10 00 

HARROWS. 

Only one class of harrows was made in the programme of the 
Society, and only two were entered for competition, viz.: 

J. E. Morgan, Deerfield, Oneida county, N. Y. Weight, 200 
pounds. Price, $30. 

The extreme width of the harrow is 7 feet 4 inches. Its 
extreme length is 5 feet 3 inches. It has 48 teeth three-fourths 
of an inch square and 5| inches long below the lower surface of 
the frame, which are steel pointed; a bolt passes through the 
frame behind each tooth to prevent splitting. It is made in two 
separate pieces, rectangular in form; each of the pieces has two 
huge bolts passing through all its bars, secured by a nut on the 
outer side of the outer bar; these huge bolts are furnished with 



252 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



an elongated eye, C D E F, the axis of which forms an angle of 
20° with the vertical line, the upper end of the eye being directed 
to the opposite harrow; these eyes are connected by a three- 
quarter inch iron rod, A B, running through them. By this 
arrangement a backward and forward motion to the extent of 
nine inches, and an upward and downward motion to the extent 
of six inches is allowed to each side of the harrow, which adapts 
them admirably to work in rough and uneven ground. The 
draught is taken by rods hooking over a bar of iron between the 
two inner beams two feet long, vibrating on an iron arc of a 
circle having a chord of 32 inches. These rods run back to hinge 
on the third tooth of the harrow. The evener is attached by a link 
to one end, and by a chain to the other 18 inches long. The chord 
of the right arc is 25 inches. The frame of the harrow is made 
of white- oak. The wooden bars are 2| inches square and 8^ 
inches apart. The tracks of the teeth are 4 inches apart. It is 
drawn diagonally. 




Jffff. 12£. 

The draft of this harrow over ground which had been previ- 
ously harrowed was 314 pounds; over ground which had not 
been previously harrowed, 371 pounds. 

The harrow is made in the best possible manner, the mate- 
rials are of the best quality, and the workmanship is most thor- 
ough and conscientious throughout. It will be seen from the 
description given above that it has a wide range of self-adjust- 
menl and Self-adaptation, and is easily kept clear of weeds and 
other accumulations. The teeth track verv well, no one tooth in 



Report of the Judges. 253 

ordinary circumstances following in the track of the other. It is 
a most excellent instrument in all respects, and we were unani- 
mously of the opinion that it deserved the gold medal. 

The other harrow was entered by F. Nishwitz. Weight. 250 
. pounds. Price, $40. 

It is exceedingly ingenious in its construction; and if not 
entirely unique, we have never met with any similar one, nor 
have we met with any description of anything resembling it. 

It consists of two expansable arms, hinged in front and con- 
tiguous to each other. They are expanded behind to any desired 
width by circular arms springing laterally and inwardly from the 
main arms at a point 2^ feet behind the angular point. These 
pass one above the other, and are secured at any desired expan- 
sion by a pin thrust through them both. The main frame is of 
oak, 8 inches wide and 2 inches thick. It runs on wheels 20 
inches in diameter and 2i inches wide, which are placed on a 
crank axle, the arms of which are 5^ inches long, and which regu- 
late the depth. 

The cutting action of this implement is by a series of rolling 
plates attached to each arm of the harrow. These plates are in 
the form of hollow segments of a sphere; the length of the chord 
is 11 inches, and the versed side | inch. They are made of gray 
iron chilled on the edge, which is quite sharp; the convex side is 
turned outward. Seven of these concave plates are attached to 
one of the expanding arms, and six to the other. There is a 
socket attached to the center of each plate, upon which it rotates. 
A hollow cone, the opening at the base being 2^ inches in diame- 
ter, and having a flange which is § inch wide, is placed on the 
lower side of the expanding arms; an eye-bolt passes through the 
cone, which is fastened by a nut on the upper side of the arms; 
the eye fits into shoulders cut in the lower part of the cone. A 
steel pin from the eye projects inward, upon which the socket 
of the plates run; on the outside a scraper is attached to the 
under side of the oak arms, which takes off the adhering earth 
from the convex surface, and also prevents the plates from run- 
ning off the steel pins upon which they rotate. They can be 
moved on a slot \\ inches backward and forward. The plane of 
rotation of the plates make an angle of 15 degrees with the line 
of the harrow's motion. 

The effect of this machine as a pulverizer was most astonishing. 
It worked most effectually diagonally across the '"furrows, going 



254 Report on Trials of Plows. 

across in this way and. returning at a reverse angle, so as to cut 
the furrow diamond wise, reduced it to powder like flour. It 
also worked most admirably in scarifying sod. It makes one of 
the most perfect implements that can be imagined for mellowing 
the surface of moss bound meadows, and for scarifying meadows 
and pastures where the grass has run out, which it is desirable to 
re-seed without plowing. 

We did not test among lumps and clods, but it was very evi- 
dent from its mode of action that it would be a most effectual 
mode of breaking these down, and it will probably prove a 
better implement for this purpose than Crosskill's clod crusher, 
or any of the numerous imitations of that implement with which 
the market abounds. It is also admirably adapted to working 
fallows. It is not well adapted to level uneven land or to cover 
seed. In these respects it would not answer as well as Mr. Mor- 
gan's; but as a superficial pulverizer we cannot speak too highly 
of it. As it is designed to meet a difficulty in practical hus- 
bandry which no preceding machine accomplishes as well, we 
recommend to the Executive Committee to award a special gold 
medal to Mr. Nishwitz for this invention. 

CULTIVATORS. 

Class I — For Corn and Root Crops, Best One-horse Culti- 
vator, one Row. 

There were two entries in this class, one by Alden & Co., 
Auburn, and by N. Hawks, Appleton, Maine. The weight of 
Alden's machine is pounds. Price, $12.50. 

The frame, ABCDEFGH, Fig. 125, with various additions 
and substitutions, is made to accomplish a great variety of ser- 
vices in practical husbandry, as seen in Fig. 125. It is used 
simply as a cultivator for ordinary purposes. The thills, A B 
and C D, are of white ash; as seen in the figure they are 22 inches 
above the bars, E F and G H, but may be raised or lowered 1£ 
inches. The upright and diagonal braces are of hoop iron'; the 
bars of oak. The teeth are of steel; the hind tooth is in the 
form of a double diamond, the three front ones are half diamond. 
The teeth are reversible, so as to throw the earth to or from 
the row. Throwing the earth from the row he went within an 
inch of it. The piece of ground assigned to him for trial was 
excessively weedy. On going twice over it, it was thoroughly 



Report of the Judges. 



255 



cleared of weeds, and the ground was well mellowed two inches 
deep. It is converted into a marker for planting corn by taking 
off the four teeth and bolting a 
bar long; enough to mark three 
rows on the under side of the 
arm, G H. It is shown as a corn- 
marker in Fig. 126. The teeth 
are wood, and their action will be 
understood by an inspection of 



the figure. 



Pegs, 



not shown in 



the figure, are driven diagonally 

into the upper corners of the cross 

bar, which support weights when 

it is desired to press the markers 

deeper into the ground. It is ar- 
ranged as a quack rake by insert- 
ing fifteen teeth curved forward 

in an arm similar to the potato 

marker. The price of these teeth 

is $2.25. 

For hilling corn, a diamond 

tooth is placed in front, having 

expansible wings. Two other 

teeth are placed at H and G, 

which throw the earth towards 

the corn. 

To cover two ?'ows of potatoes, 

four small plows, with long wings 

(it takes twenty minutes to make 

this change) are screwed on to 

the arms of the machine. With 

this arrangement the potatoes 

were covered in going backward 

and forward, raising a ridge 4 inches hio-h. 

In a word, this machine 
cultivates between the rows in 
the usual manner. It marks 
furrows for corn, potatoes, or 
any other crop requiring to 
be planted in straight lines; 
rakes quack or other roots out 




Fig. 725. 




Fig. 726. 



256 Report on Trials of Plows. 

of the soil, leaving them in rows upon the surface. It makes the 
furrows for any crops requiring to be planted in hills, and covers 
them, ridging them as much as is required. It was tried by very 
severe tests in the most difficult soils and circumstances, and did 
good work in all. 

The work of Mr. Hawks' machine has been described under 
the head of " Ditching Plows," in Class VII, as a seed-planter, 
cultivator, potato-digger, etc. As the two machines were entered 
only as cultivators, we can only compare them strictly as such. 
We are of opinion that Alden's Cultivator cut up the weeds, and 
mellowed the ground^aud performed the legitimate work of a 
cultivator better than Hawks, and we therefore award it the gold 
medal in this section of Class I. 

For the same section of Class I, only one entry was made by 
A. L. Brierly & Co., of Trenton, N. J., who entered Phifers' 
Improved Wheel Corn, Cotton and Potato Plow and Cultivator, 
which is represented in Fig. 127. 

The diameter of the wheel is 4 feet 6 inches; length of axle 
or distance between the wheels at their maximum separation is 
5 feet 4 inches. The axle is of wrought iron, If inches in 
diameter. The wheels may be run together by means of a sliding 
collar and pinching screw, so that their distance from each other 
will be only 2 feet 6 inches. They may be made to take any 
intermediate place between these maximum and minimum points. 

Four wooden bars seen in the figure, each 21 inches long, are 
adjusted over the axle by a circular clip, the shank of which 
passes through the bar and is fastened by a nut. A slotted iron 
l>ar is bolted to the inner ends of each pair of bars. A vertical 
bar, with slots in both directions, is bolted to each bar just 
in advance of the axle, and secured by fangs on the top and bot- 
tom; from this vertical bar and jointed to it a lever extends 
backwards 2 feet 7 inches, and 1 foot 10 inches downward. It is 
curved downward at its lower end, and slit so as to embrace the 
head of the plow or cultivator tooth. 

A projection extending backward at an acute angle receives a 
brace, which hinges on a bar below the lifting lever, as shown in 
the cut. The brace is perforated by nine holes, which are ke} T ed 
to the projection from the curved end of the lever; the inner end 
of the lever is adjusted by a rod and screw running through the 
wooden liars. The cultivator teeth are fastened to the lever by 
an iron bolt and wooden pin. It' the plow or cultivator tooth 



Report of the Judges. 



257 




17 



258 Report on Trials of Plows. 

encounters any sudden strain, the wooden pin breaks at once, and 
its connection by the bolt leaves it simply as a loose joint, and 
takes off all the strain until the obstacle is passed. 

It will be seen by a careful study of this arrangement that it 
provides for a very wide range of adjustment. The wheels may 
be set at any distance apart by raising or lowering the curved 
levers in the slots of the vertical bars. The plow points may be 
made to take more or less depth by means of the lifting lever. 
Any one or more of the plows can be lifted from the ground, 
either Avholly or in part, by the holes at the slot ends of the 
curved levers; they can be lengthened or shortened, and the 
plow can be made to go as deep or as shallow as is desired. 

There is a semicircular arch shown in the figure, one end of 
which rests on the axle and the other on the slotted bars; it is 
furnished on the outer circle with notches. A thumb latch at 
the upper end of the lifting lever works a rod connected with a 
spiral spring, and permits a bolt to enter the notches, by which 
the teeth are raised out of the ground. 

A convenient seat for the driver, resting on a steel spring, is 
seen in the figure. An arm projecting laterally can be bolted to 
the end of either of the curved levers, by which the number of 
plow or cultivator teeth can be increased at pleasure. 

The machine is also provided with a steering apparatus. An 
iron bar is bolted to the under side of the axle, having a circular 
disk in the center, in which is a circular slot. The pin of the 
tongue is inserted in the slot, but is fastened by a bolt kept in 
place by a spiral spring. When the spring is raised by a lever 
the tonjme has a motion of rotation to the extent of the circular 
slots. An iron bar 1 foot 4 inches long projects from the tongue 
on each side, and a chain passes from either end of it to the ends 
of the under bar. A lever can therefore change the angle of the 
tongue with the axle at pleasure. The machine was tried in all 
the operations that it professed to perform, although we could 
only consider it officially as a cultivator. 

It first operated as a seed-sower, scattering rye very evenly, 
and covering it with four plows running shallow and turning the 
earth all one way. Next it worked with seven cultivator teeth, 
throwing the earth in opposite directions. It cultivated two rows 
of corn, one plow on each side throwing earth towards the corn 
and one throwing it away from it. Again, all the plows threw 
earth towards the corn, and then both threw it away from it. 



Report of tee Judges. 259 

The changes to accomplish these different objects can be made 
very easily; in no case did it require more than six minutes for 
that purpose. It did all the work, and went through all the tests 
to which it was subjected in a very perfect manner. It worked 
close to the corn rows, and, by means of the steering apparatus, 
it could be made to move around a hill or a sing-le stalk which 
happened to stand out of line, without injuring it or touching it. 
It destroyed the weeds very satisfactorily, and it was tested in as 
weedy a patch and as tough a soil as we ever saw. It pulverized 
the soil as well as could be desired. The only fault that we 
noticed in the whole course of the protracted trial which we gave 
to it was that, in some very bad places, it clogged somewhat. It 
is very strong in all its parts, and we think it is not liable to get 
out of order. The material is very skillfully distributed, the 
greatest amount of material being distributed to the parts where 
the strain is greatest. 

We award the gold medal to this machine in the second section 
of the first class. 

Class II — For Mellowing Soil and Killing Weeds. 

Ford & Howe, of Oneonta, N. Y., entered for this section of 
Class II. Weight, 480 pounds. Price, $60. 

The drawing, Fig. 128, will give a very clear idea of its con- 
struction. The evener A B swings on the under side of the 
tongue, from the evener iron bars run backward diagonally to 
a little beyond the middle of the bars of the frame from which 
the cultivator teeth are suspended; hence, although the horses 
are hooked to the end of these bars, neither horse can pull more 
than another, their action being equalized by the evener as in the 
common whiffietree. It will be seen that a brace runs forward 
from about the middle of each shank of the tooth, and bolts into 
the bars of the frame. There are several holes pierced through 
these bars near the lower end; by changing the pins through 
these bolts a greater or less angle can be given to the plane of 
the teeth as they enter the ground. The tongue has an opening 
in the middle, from D to E, which enables the driver more easily 
to strike a straight line. It can rotate from right to left around 
the pin C. There is a friction wheel on the under side of the 
tongue, which rolls on the iron arc G. The driver, seated in the 
chair, with a foot on each of the outer bars, carries himself to the 



260 



Report on Trials of Plows. 




Report of the Judges. 261 

right or the left, as he chooses; he thus turns the machine at his 
pleasure, and avoids any plant which may stand out of the line. 
By means of a crank not seen in the figure, the teeth may be 
entirely lifted out of the ground or made to run deeper or shal- 
lower. By drawing out the pin at E, the tongue may be turned on 
the other pin as pivot. By this arrangement it is stowed away 
when not in use with much economy of space. The blades of the 
teeth may be turned from the right to the left so as to throw the 
earth either to or from the corn. Where used as a gang plow, 
three beams and three rows of teeth are used; for cultivating in 
corn only two sets are employed. It does its work extremely 
well, and the only objection to it that we observed is that it 
takes considerable time to make the changes, viz.: twenty min- 
utes to change it from a gang plow to a corn cultivator, and 
twelve minutes to change the angle of the teeth so as to throw 
earth to the corn when it had been throwing it away from it. 
We award it a gold medal in this section of the class. 

In the second section of Class II, William H. Burtis & Co., 
Maltaville, Saratoga county, entered McQueston's Improved Cul- 
tivator. 

This implement will be understood by an inspection of the 
annexed Fig. 129, without any further description. Weight, 100 
pounds. Price, $35. 

It will be observed that the point of each spade has a horizon- 
tal range of nine inches on the diagonal rod which passes through 
the shank just above the base of the spade. Each of the beams 
to which the spades are attached work freely on a centre at the 
front end, which enables the attendant to raise out of the ground 
or press them into it at pleasure; they also have a lateral range 
of a complete semicircle. The wrought iron arch in front is two 
inches wide and one-half an inch thick. The wheels are of cast 
iron, 14 inches in diameter by 2 inches wide. The shovels are 
of steel, 5 \ inches wide and 10 inches long. The work was well 
done in all places where it was tried; it stirred the soil to a 
depth of 6 inches, which was about 1| inches deeper than any 
of the others. It never was observed to clog. It has one 
peculiarity in which it differs from all the others, which we must 
confess we do not quite understand — it leaves the grass and weeds 
on the top of the ground without burying them, while all the 
others bury them. The greatest objection to it is that it makes 



262 



Report on Trials of Plows. 



very hard work for the attendant. Where a machine is desired 
to be regulated by handles and without permitting the attendant 




to ride, this machine can be confidently recommended. We 
award the gold medal to this section of the class. 

JOHN STANTON GOULD, B. P. JOHNSON, 
ELISHA R. POTTER, SANFORD HOWARD, 

PETER ORTSPELL, Jit., JOSEPH McGRAW". 

UKSUY WATERMAN, 

Note.— Mr. Conger was not present, nt the trial. Mr. Qoddes was only present for a 
single day, and took no part in the decision. Prof. Pierce declines to havo bis name 
appended to the report, as he does no< oonoui in Borne of it? statements. 



BEPOBT OF THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE 



ON THE 



SUPPLEMENTARY PLOW TRIALS, 

Held at Brattleboro', June 2, 3 and 4, 1868. 



The Executive Committee of the New York State Agricultural 
Society, having been informed by the report of the judges of the 
plow trial instituted by the Society at Utica, last year, that, from 
accidental circumstances, they were unable to complete the trials 
necessary to ascertain the facts in relation to the plow and its 
working, which were of great importance to the plow-wright and 
the farmer, it appointed a special committee, consisting of the 
chairman of the board of judges and the consulting engineer of 
the Society, who were requested to complete the trials at such 
time and place as they might deem most desirable in order to 
obtain correct results. 

In pursuance of this appointment, they fixed on Brattleboro', 
Vermont, as the place, and June 2, 1868, as the time for obtaining 
the supplementary facts which were necessary to the completion 
of the plow report. 

The points upon which we endeavored to obtain light were the 
following: 

I. What is the increase of power required for each successive 

inch of depth in plowing ? 
II. What is the increase of power required for each successive 
inch of width in plowing ? 

III. What is the increase of power required when the furrow 

slice remains of the same size for each successive 
increment of velocity ? 

IV. What proportion of the total amount of power consumed 

in plowing is absorbed by the different parts of the 
plow, viz., the land side, the share, the mould-board ? 
V. What is the influence of the coulter on draught ? 



264 Report of the Special Committee. 

VI. Does the skim-plow consume more or less power than the 

coulter ? 
VII. What is the elasticity of different soils ? 
VIII. "What is the influence of the wheel on draught ? 

IX. What is the influence of the plowman on draught ? 

We had ascertained by previous trials that one furrow varied 
very greatly in tenacity from another lying closely contiguous to 
it, and this difference was so great that it sometimes required a 
force of three hundred pounds to overcome it. 

It was, therefore, in our judgment, of great importance to 
obtain a piece of land for the trials as homogeneous as possible 
in its texture and as free from local obstacles, such as stumps, 
stones and roots, as could be obtained. In order to guard against 
interruptions from continuous rainy weather, it was desirable to 
select land which drained easily and rapidly. The lands on the 
Connecticut river, near Brattleboro', met these conditions more 
nearly than any others with which we were acquainted, and the 
trial was accordingly appointed for that locality. 

The ploAving was done on the meadow belonging to the Brattle- 
boro' Lunatic Asylum, which lies about ten feet above the summer 
level of the Connecticut river, but which is often entirely covered 
by the spring floods. The soil is a sandy loam, somewhat stiffer 
than is usual in that class of lands, and very full of micaceous 
scales. It has been in sod for twelve years past; the grass, which 
was chiefly blue grass, j)oa pratensis, was very thick upon the 
ground, and the roots were tough and thick. In some of the 
furrows there were found thick masses of quack roots (Tr/ficm/i 
rejjens); in others there was a great deal of hardhack {JSpircBa 
tomentosa); in some others, both kinds of roots were combined. 
Although the general appearance of the meadow was level, yet it 
was nevertheless considerably rolling, and it was found that there 
was considerable difference in the draught of the furrows which 
were turned so as to fall down hill or up hill. 

As examples of the differences thus caused, we refer to the 
seventy-second experiment, where the furrow was turned down 
hill, and the seventy-third, where it was turned up hill; the 
difference in draught being 7(1 pounds in favor of the down-hill 
furrow. The same result is also exhibited in the seventh-sixth 
and seventy-seventh experiments, where the difference was 96 
pounds. The difference between the seventy-fourth and seventy- 



Supplementary Plow Trials. 



265 



fifth experiments was 136 pounds, which was caused by the 
seventy-fifth being turned up hill, and also to the roots of the 
hardhack, which varied from one-eighth to three-eighths of an inch 
in diameter. The soil was very moist from recent copious rains. 

Governor F. Holbrook was kind enough to procure for us the 
various plows, with the necessary adjustments required for the 
trial; and also, at our request, negotiated for the use of the land 
and for the the teams and assistants. 

We obtained the assistance of Mr. Henry Brooks, of Concord, 
well known as a very skillful plowman, and his services as such 
were perfectly satisfactory. 

Governor Holbrook, of Vermont; Governor Brown, of Massa- 
chusetts, and Mr. Joel Nourse, of Boston, the inventor of the 
well known Eagle plow, were present with us at all the trials, 
and their advice and assistance were of great value. Mr. G. 
Tucker, of the Country Gentleman, was also with us during the 
whole time. 

We began our experiments with two horses, but finding it 
difficult to preserve a perfectly uniform breadth of furrow, owing 
to the irregularity of their walking, we used four horses, walking 
in pairs, so that the irregular walk of one team compensated for 
the irregularity of the other. Finding that four horses made the 
experiments so much more satisfactory, we continued the use of 
them throughout. 



I. Experiments to determine the increase of power required 
for each successive inch of depth in plowing with 

Holbrook' s Swivel Ploiv, No. 4: 



g 


£ 


£ 


00 

PI 




M 


o 


o 


© 




u 


=» S 


» i 


ft 






*1 


2* 


.8 
2 


REMARKS. 


«-* 


XI "~ 


x— 1 


bO 




O 




-4J 


3 






ft 


t3 


c« 




6 
1 


0> 

p 

6h 


s 


P 




131 


. 494 




2 


7 


13| 


6lf 


( This was probably a mis-reading of the dynamometer, 
( and is rejected in making up the averages. 


3 


7 


13* 


557 




4 


7 


131 


575 


5 Average of third and fourth experiments, with a furrow 
( slice of the same size, 566 pounds. 








5 


7k 


134 


584 





266 Report of the Special Committee. 

HolbrooUs Swivel Plow, No. 4 (Continued). 



— 





CO 


o 


•3 

a 




o 


,S v. 


ft 


*4-i © 


.3 


o « 


-^ 




,a 


rfS*° 


6D 






T3 


e3 


p 


P 


14 


634 


15 


641 


15 


660 


12 


482 


13 


457 


13 


582 


13 


504 


13 


505 


13 


501 



KEMARKS. 



9 
10 



'11 



tl2 

J13 
14 



lh 



{The average of the fifth and sixth experiments is 609 
pounds. Although the sixth is half an inch wider 
than the fifth, the excess is chiefly due to the turn- 
ing of the furrow up hill in the sixth. 
5 Average of the seventh and eighth experiments, 651 
\ pounds. 

{Average of the ninth and tenth experiments, 469 
pounds. The excess of draught of the ninth over 
the tenth was due to old bones which lay in the 
bottom of the furrow. 
{The work without the coulter was very poor; the 
furrow slice was torn and jagged ; the furrows did 
not lap well ; the grass was ill covered, and the 
pulverization was imperfect. 

Work good in all respects. 

( Average of thirteenth and fourteenth experiments, 
( 502j pounds. 



. * The coulter was here removed, and the plow was worked, cutting the sod with the 
I shin. 

! \ The coulter was here replaced, but was set so that it only penetrated one inch into 
I the soil. 

X The coulter was here brought down within three inches of the sole of the plow. 



This plow made the best pulverization at a depth of seven 
inches. It was slightly worse at eight inches; but at depths greater 
or less than these the inferiority of its work was very marked. 

The average depth of the first ten experiments was 7.05 inches; 
the average breadth of the first ten experiments was 13.65 inches; 
the average draught of the first ten experiments was 565 pounds. 

This average draught of all the trials agrees within one pound 
with the average draught of the third and fourth experiments, 
which correspond with it in the size of the furrow slice. 

Recapitulation of Averages. 



Inches. 


Inches. 


Pounds. 


Differences, pounds. 


6 


124 


469 


.. 


61 


13i 


494 


25 


7 


134 


5G6 


72 


7i 


131 


609 


43 


8 


15 


651 


42 



Supplementary Plow Trials. 



267 



The average difference of draught for each half inch of depth 
is 45.5 pounds, or 91 pounds to each inch. The accuracy of this 
average is somewhat impaired by the fact that there is a difference 
in the breadth of the furrows, the extremes being 2i inches apart. 

We next began a series of experiments to determine the rates 
of draught to depth with Holbrook's Plow No. 69, with a coulter 
and sod mould-board: 



,3 M 



Q 



«w9 



k 



H 

C 
3 
o 

Ph 

a 

■a 

3 



REMARKS. 



15 

16 
17 

18 
19 
20 
21 

22 
23 
24 

25 
26 

27 

28 
29 

30 
31 
32 
33 



34 

35 
36 
37 



10 5 
10J 
11 
11 



16 
16 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 

18 
18 

18 
18 
18 
18 



18 
18 
18 
18 



*118 
*107 
* 99 
647 
594 
540 
551 
558 
618 
626 
603 
603 
578 

744 
791 

800 
871 
755 
734 



876 
1,215 

976 
1,080 



Average of fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth experi- 
ments, 108 pounds. 

Average of eighteenth and nineteenth experiments, 
621 pounds. 

Average of twentieth and twenty-first experiments, 
545s pounds. 

Average of twenty-second and twenty-third experi- 
ments, 588 pounds. 

Average of twenty-fourth, twenty-fifth, twenty-sixth 
and twenty-seventh experiments, 601 pounds. 

Average of twenty-eighth and twenty-ninth experi- 
ments, 767 pounds. In the twenty-ninth, the 
coulter obstructed by quack roots. 

In the thirtieth experiment the coulter obstructed by 
hardhack roots; in the thirty-first the coulter 
obstructed by quack and hardhack roots. Average 
of thirtieth, thirty-first, thirty-second and thirty- 
third experiments, 790 pounds. 

Average of thirty-fourth, thirty-fifth, thirty-sixth, 
and thirty-seventh experiments, 1,012 pounds. 
This great draught was caused by the blunt shank 
and knee of the coulter running into the sod 
at this depth. They are retained in the table as 
instructive illustrations of the effect of a blunt 
coulter, but are rejected in making up the averages, 
which are taken from the eighteenth to the thirty- 
third experiments, both inclusive. 



* Surface draught. 

Average depth from eighteenth to thirty-third experiments, 
7.94 inches; average width, 17.80 inches; average draught, 663 
pounds; average prism, 141.33 square inches. Average prism 
from twenty-fourth to twenty-seventh experiments, 144 square 
inches; average draught, 601 pounds. 



268 



Report of the Special Committee. 



In this series, with Plow No. 69, the average draught of the 
whole series exceeds the average draught of the series of experi- 
ments which asfree with it in the size of the furrow slice by 62 
pounds. (Experiments twenty-four, twenty-five, twenty-six and 
twenty-seven, eight inches deep and eighteen inches wide.) 

Recapitulation of Expeinments with Ploiv JVb. 69. 



Average depth, 


Average width, 


Average draug't 


Difference, 


Size of prism, 


of furrow, 


of furrow, 


in pounds. 


pounds. 


square inches. 


inches. 


inches. 








5£ 


16 


621 




88 


6 


18 


545i 


75| 


108 


7 


18 


588 


421 


126 


8 


18 


601 


13 


144 


9 


18 


767 


166 


162 


10 


18 


790 


23 


180 




Surfa 


:e draught, 108 pounds. 





The average difference in the draught of each inch in depth was 
61 pounds. The excess of 75^ pounds of draught in the furrow 
of 88 square inches over the furrow with 108 square inches is 
anomalous, and was caused either by an error in reading of the 
dynamometer indication or by some local obstruction. The 
anomaly did not appear until the indications were computed, and 
it was then too late to ascertain the cause of it. This difference 
was not, therefore, included in the average of 61 pounds. 

The next set of experiments to determine the rates of draught 
to depth was made with Holbrook's Plow No. 65, the coulter 
being adjusted to lay flat furrows: 



C 

a> 

a 

"G 
9 

a, 

o 
6 


1* 

o 
H 
t- • 

^=: « 
° c 

a, 
o 
P 


o 

H 

>- * 


00 

a 

3 
o 
a, 
g 

| 

a 

ft 


REMARKS. 


38 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 


21 
2i 

3i 
31 
4i 

4i 


ii 
ii 
ii 
n 
n 
ii 


*77 
324 
:;2s 
404 
392 
459 
419 


) Average of thirty-ninth and fortieth experiments, 

\ 326 pounds. 

( Average of forty-first and forty-second experiments, 

) 398 pounds. 

} Average of forty-third and forty-fourth experiments, 

) 439 pounds. 



• Surface druught. 



Supplementary Plow Trials. 



269 



PI 

a 


o 
u 


o 


w 

a 

O 




u 

<D 
Pa 
M 
<D 
Cm 


cH w 

O W 

^. a 


«E! °a 

^.a 


Pa 

fn 


REMARKS 


O 






f3 






en 




a 




6 

525 


CD 


£ 






45 


5* 


n 


451 


) 


46 


51 


n 


463 


( Average of forty-fifth, forty-sixth, forty-seventh 


47 


51 


n 


428 


( and forty-eighth experiments, 443 pounds. 


48 


5£ 


li 


424 


) 


49 
50 
51 


7 
7 
7 


n 
n 
n 


520 
504 
512 


/ Average of forty-ninth, fiftieth and fifty-first 


t experiments, 512 pounds. 


52 


8 


n 


574 


) 


53 


8 


n 


545 


( Average of fifty-second, fifty-third, fifty-fourth 


54 


8 


n 


564 


( and fifty-fifth experiments, 552 pounds. 


55 


8 


li 


528 


) 



Average depth from thirty-ninth to fifty-fifth experiments, both 
inclusive, 5.64 inches; average width from thirty-ninth to fifty- 
fifth experiment, both inclusive, 11 inches; average draught 
from thirty-niuth to fifty-fifth experiments, both inclusive, 463 
pounds. 

The average draught of the whole series of experiments 
exceeds the average of the forty-fifth, forty-sixth, forty-seventh 
and forty-eighth experiments, which agree most nearly with it in 
the size of the furrow slice, by 20 pounds. 

Recapitulation of Experiments with Plow No. 65 — Flat furrow. 



Depth of fur- 


Width of fur- 


Draught in 


Difference, 


Size of prism, 


row, inches. 


row, inches. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


square inches. 


. . 


. . 


# 77 




.... 


2k 


11 


326 


•• 


27.5 


U 


11 


398 


72 


38.5 


U 


11 


439 


41 


49.5 / 


$h 


11 


443 


4 


60.5 


7 


11 


512 


69 


77 


8 


11 


552 


40 


88 



* Surface draught. 

The average difference in the draught of each inch in depth 
was 45.20 pounds. 

Experiments to determine the rates of draught to depth made 
with Holbrook's Plow No. 65, with a coulter adjusted to lap 
furrows: 



270 



Report of the Special Committee. 



-4J 

a 

a 


o 
u 


o 

Eh 


a 

3 
o 

cu 


(D 


e£ a> 






Cm 


«~^ 






X, 


<*; o 


O u 


■43 


a> 




" c 


,4 


c— 




42-'-' 


be 


o 


Cm 


T3 


eS 


6 


0> 


► 


ft 


*56 


8 


11 


485 


*57 


8 


11 


520 


*58 


8 


11 


557 


*59 


8 


11 


558 


f60 


8 


11 


515 


t61 


8 


11 


509 


62 


8 


11 


452 


63 


8 


11 


458 


64 


8 


11 


444 


65 


8 


11 


459 


J66 


7 


10 


384 


J67 


7 


10 


460 


68 


7 


10 


370 


69 


7 


10 


420 


70 


7 


10 


390 


71 


7 


10 


379 



REMARKS 



The furrow was not of full width ; not averaged. 

Average of fifty-seventh, fifty-eighth and fifty- 
ninth experiments, 545 pounds. 

Average of sixtieth and sixty-first experiments, 
512 pounds. 

Average of sixty-second, sixty-third, sixty-fourth 
and sixty-fifth experiments, 453 pounds. 

Average of sixty-sixth and sixty-seventh experi- 
ments, 422 pounds. 

Average of sixty-eighth, sixty-ninth, seventieth 
and seventy-first experiments, 389 pounds. 



* On examining the plow after it had been used in these four experiments, it was 
found that the coulter was excessively dull ; it was, in fact, an unfinished one which 
had been put in inadvertently when the change was made for a lap furrow. A sharp 
coulter was then inserted. 

f The coulter in these two experiments was very badly choaked with roots which 
collected across its edge. To remedy this the rake was very considerably increased. 

J It was found that the coulter, in these two experiments, had slipped down so as to 
loose the extra rake which had been given to it, and the grass roots again gathered on 
its edge. More rake was then given to it. 



The difference between plowing seven inches or eight inches 
deep, according to these experiments, is 64 pounds. The same 
plow showed a difference between seven inches and eight inches, 
when turning a flat furrow, of 40 pounds. (Experiments forty-nine 
to fifty-five.) 

Experiments to determine the rates of draught to depth with 
Holbrook's Sod and Subsoil Plow No. 69, with a stubble mould- 
board and a skim plow attached to the front of the beam: 

The skim plow turned a furrow two and a half inches deep in 
all cases; the remainder of the furrow slice was turned by the 
main plow. 

The column headed "Depth of furroAv" indicates the whole 
depth turned by the skim and the main plow. 

The point of the skim plow was eleven inches in advance of 
the point of the main plow. 



Supplementary Plow Trlals. 



271 



fc 



O 

s-i . 
,3 to 

I 1 

T3 


CO 
H3 
S3 
S3 
O 
Pn 

.S 

43 

QO 

S3 


£ 


Q 


12 


621 


12 


697 


12 


733 


•12 


869 


12 


800 


12 


896 


12 


947 


12 


1,003 


12 


1,012 


12 


1,082 


12 


966 


12 


1,143 



REMARKS 



72 
73 

*74 

*75 
76 

*77 
78 
79 
80 
81 

t82 
83 



9 
9 

10 
10 
11 
11 
12 
12 
13 
13 
14 
14 



Average of seventy-second and seventy-third experi- 
ments, 659 pounds. 

Average of seventy-fourth and seventy-fifth experi- 
ments, 801 pounds. 

Average of seventy-sixth and seventy-seventh exper- 
iments, 848 pounds. 

Average of seventy-eighth and seventy-ninth experi- 
ments, 990 pounds. 

Average of eightieth and eighty-first experiments, 
1,047 pounds. 

Average of eighty-second and eighty-third experi- 
ments, 1,054 pounds. 



* Many stones in the bottom of furrow. | This was not quite full depth. 

Average depth from seventy-second to eighty-third experiments, 
11.5 inches; average width, 12 inches; average draught, 897 
pounds. 

The average draught of the whole series of experiments falls 
below the mean of 11 and 12 inches, which corresponds with it 
in size, 21 pounds. 

Recapitulation of Experiments with Sod and Subsoil Plow. 



Depth of fur- 


Width of fur- 


Draught in 


Difference, 


Size of prism, 


row, inches. 


row, inches. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


square inches. 


9 


12 


659 




108 


10 


12 


801 


142 


120 


11 


12 


848 


47 


132 


12 


12 


990 


42 


144 


13 


12 


1,047 


57 


156 


14 


12 


1,054 


7 


168 



The average difference in the draught of each inch in depth 
was 59 pounds. 

The work of this plow at all depths was very perfect; the 
ground was thoroughly pulverized; the vegetation was perfectly 
buried, and the surface was left smooth and level as a garden. 
There can be no doubt that the work was much better done than 
it could have been done by a spade. 



272 Report of the Special Committee. 

In making these experiments, several things interesting to the 
practical plowman were very fully exemplified: 

1. The unequal tenacity of the soil. The plowing was round 
a centre back furrow. As the land grew wider the furrows, of 
course, receded farther from each other. While testing the sod 
and subsoil plow (seventy-second to eighty-third experiments), 
one of the furrows ran for half its length through a sandy soil, 
while the other ran through a moist, tenacious loam. The even 
numbers of the experiments mark the sandy furrows; the odd 
numbers the tenacious loams. The average draught of the loamy 
furrows is 102 pounds greater than the sandy furrows. 

2. The importance of a proper adjustment of the several parts of 
the plow. The draught as indicated in all the tables given above 
is much heavier than it would have been if one uniform depth 
and width of furrow had been adhered to throughout. The 
change from one sized furrow to another, of course, involved a 
change in the adjustment of the plow, and this was not always 
ascertained on the first or even on the second trial. When this 
was not accurately done, the plowman exerted his strength at the 
end of a long lever to counteract the effect of the maladjustment, 
which was at once indicated by the index of the dynamometer, 
sometimes to the extent of 150 pounds. Some of the experiments 
were made by plowing two furrows, or once around; others by 
four furrows, or twice around. In most cases the two last furrows 
showed less draught than the two first, because the plow swam 
more freely and required less interposition on the part of the 
plowman. As examples of this, Ave refer to the forty-fifth and 
forty-sixth experiments, showing an averaged draught of 4o7 
pounds, and the two next furrows of the same size, which only 
averaged 426 pounds, showing an advantage of draught amount- 
ing to 31 pounds, arising from more perfect adjustment. In these 
last furrows the plow ran for more than two-thirds of the distance 
by itself, without a touch of the plowman's finger, and for the 
remaining third his touch was the lightest possible. The same 
thing is shown by a comparison of the sixty-second and sixty- 
third with the sixty-fourth and sixty-fifth experiments, the latter 
being 35 pounds lighter than the former, for the same reason. 
The necessity of accurate adjustment was very clearly illustrated 
in the action of plow No. 69. We desired to adjust it for a 
furrow 12 inches deep and lfi inches wide, but Mr. Brooks, 
though perfectly acquainted with the implement, was utterly 



Supplementary Plow Trials. 273 

unable to make it take such a furrow; his utmost efforts could not 
force it more than eight inches into the ground, nor could it take 
a furrow wider than twelve inches. More than two hours were 
spent in trying to make it swim freely in the desired furrow, but 
without success, although Gov. Holbrook and Mr. Nourse, both 
eminent masters of the art of plowing, exerted all the resources 
of their skill to make it work. We all knew that the plow would 
work admirably in such a furrow, for we had seen it do it again 
and again. We broke off our work for dinner, quite in despair 
of being able to accomplish what we designed to do with that 
plow. While sitting at dinner, it occurred to Mr. Nourse that 
the difficulty might lie in the beam. Accordingly, on reassembling 
in. the field, after dinner, we found that the workman had care- 
lessly set the beam out of its true direction, so that it turned from 
land and out of the ground to such an extent that the clevis could 
not afford vertical or lateral motion enough to correct it. These 
tendencies were then counteracted by an opposite adjustment of 
the coulter to make it take more land, and by hooking the chain 
into the wheel guards to make it run deeper. We then had no 
difficulty in performing the experiments from the fifteenth to the 
thirty-seventh with relative correctness, although the absolute 
draught was undoubtedly considerably greater than it would have 
been had the beam been in its right place. 

3. The importance of skill in the jploivman was also very clearly 
manifested. This skill is desirable to hold the plow to advantage. 
Delicacy and sensitiveness of touch are almost as much required 
in plowing as in line engraving. The plow manifests its inten- 
tion to go astray to the sympathetic plowman before it actually 
does so; a very slight, an almost inappreciable counter resistance 
on his part, promptly applied, will check the volition of the plow 
before it is manifested in action, but if the golden moment is lost, 
it is gone forever. The volition is manifest in action, and an 
unsightly alteration in the size of the furrow slice reveals the 
plowman's awkwardness to every spectator. But the skill of the 
plowman is not alone manifested in his manner of holding; if is 
even more clearly shown in his mode of tempering the plow. A 
good plowman is never satisfied until his plow swims absolutely 
free; he will not use any more of his own strength than is really- 
necessary, knowing as he does that, as his force is exerted through 
levers, every pound of exertion which he uses reacts on the horses 
with a tenfold force. He will, therefore, alter his adjustments, 
18 



274 Report of tee Special Committee. 

if need be, twenty times until this result is fully accomplished 
When the plow does not run level, but is frequently changed by 
the plowman from one side to the other, the two sides of the 
furrow slice will be found to be unequal in thickness, and, there- 
fore, the soil of the thinner edge has been left undisturbed at the 
bottom. We found in every case that the draught of the plow was 
lightest when it was going smoothly and steadily by itself, 
untouched by the plowman. It was really interesting to watch 
its motions when running thus freely; if it encountered any obstacle 
in the soil, which had a tendency to throw it out, it would turn 
of its own accord to take more land, or if the obstacle directed it 
inward, toward the land, it would turn to throw itself out; and 
when it accomplished the object it would quietly settle down 
again to its level and proper work. It was truly automatic in 
its motions, but this was only so when the different parts were 
adjusted with absolute accuracy, which can only be done by an 
accomplished plowman. Seeing these facts brought out so clearly 
before our ej^es, it was a cause of deep regret to us that the race 
of finished plowman was rapidly running out in the State of New 
York. 

Our plows have been very greatly improved within the last 
quarter of a century; but the sons of farmers who were in the 
noon of their viffor at that time do not understand the art of 
plowing as well as their fathers did. We think that the State 
Agricultural Society could exert its great power for good in no 
direction where it would be more beneficial to farmers than in 
taking measures to stimulate a taste for good plowing among the 
rising generation of farmers in New York. The growing class in 
our State, w r ho farm for pleasure as w 7 ell as profit, might do much 
to encourage this taste. If they would adopt a high standard of 
plowing, and insist upon their workmen approximating closely 
to it, rewarding the closest approximations to it by a suitable 
pecuniary recompense, the fashion of good plowing would soon 
spread. Just as the fashion of skating has produced an abundance of 
elegant skaters, and the fashion of base-hall playing has produced 
an abundant crop of admirable batsmen, throwers and catchers, 
so the fashion of good plowing would supply us with tirst-class 
plowmen. 

4. The actual results of tht trial. These are shown in the fol- 
lowing tables: 



Supplementary Plow Trials. 



275 



Table showing the average depth and width of furrow, the average draught, 
the average size of prism, and the average of the whole. 





o 

u 


6? 

o 
u 

u . 


o 


.9 

oo 

Sis 


ounds 
d turn 
einch. 


PLOWS. 


3 oo 


,2 tc 

"1 




52 o 


srof p 
ired t 
squar 




A "" 


rP -rH 


&0 


O e3 


,0 3J 




Ph 


13 


=5 

eg 


gS< 


fi » cj 




ft 


£ 


ft 


.2 oo 

CO 


S Si ca 


Swivel, No. 4 


7.05 

7.94 

5.65 

11.50 


13.65 

17.80 

11 

12 


505 
663 
463 
897 


96.23 
141.33 

62.15 
138.00 


5.87 
4.69 
7.45 
6.50 


No. 69 


No. 65 






8.03 


13.61 


647 


109.43 


6.10 





(a) We Jearn from this table that, with prisms varying very- 
much in size, the largest being nearly two and one half times 
greater than the smallest, the power required for cutting and 
turning a lap furrow is expressed by 6.10 pounds for each sec- 
tional square inch of the furrow slice. 

(b) We learn also that large furrow slices are turned with 
more economy of power than smaller ones. The average power 
required to turn the two smaller furrow slices of 79.19 square inches 
was 6.66 pounds per square inch, while the power required to 
turn the two larger ones of 139.66 square inches was 5.55 pounds, 
or the smaller required 1.11 pounds more power than the former. 
This result appears less favorably when considered with reference 
to the average depth of the furrows than it does in relation to the 
square inches. The two shallowest furrows average 6.35 inches in 
depth, and require 80.94 pounds for each inch of depth. The 
two deepest furrows average 9.72 inches in depth, and require 
80.24 pounds for each inch of depth. 

(c) The sod and subsoil plow seems to require more power 
than it does when it is worked with a coulter. Considered with 
reference to the sectional area of the slice, the sod and subsoil 
requires 6.50 pounds of power for each square inch, while it only 
requires 4.69 pounds per square inch when used with the coulter. 
Considered with reference to the depth, each inch of the sod and 
subsoil requires 78.00 pounds of power, while with the coulter it 
requires 83.50 pounds, showing a greater expense of power in the 
sod and subsoil plow of 1.81 pounds for each square inch of sec- 
tional area, and 5.50 pounds less power for each inch in depth. 



276 Report of the Special Committee. 

(d) No. 69 requires 1.18 pounds less power for each square 
inch of sectional area than the swivel and 2.14 pounds less for 
each inch in depth. The swivel consumes 80.14 pounds and No. 
69 consumes 78.00 pounds of power for each inch of depth. 

(e) No. 65 consumes 0.95 pounds more of power for each square 
inch of sectional area of furrow than the sod and subsoil plow, and 
3.94 pounds more for each inch of depth. No. 65 consumes 81.94 
pounds, and the sod and subsoil 78.00 pounds for each inch of depth. 

In order to afford the means of comparison, we here insert some 
of the results arrived at by Mr. Pusey and Mr. Morton, which 
are given in full in the report on the trials of plows at Utica, in 
September, 1867: 

The average draught of Mr. Pusey 's first four furrows of 5, 6, 
7 and 8 inches deep was 53.84 pounds for each inch in depth. 
The average draught of his last four furrows, 9, 1Q, 11 and 12 
inches deep, was 57 pounds for each inch in depth. In both cases 
the furrow was nine inches wide. 

In Mr. Morton's experiments the shallower furrows showed an 
average draught of 85.40 pounds for each inch in depth; the 
deeper ones averaged 94.62 pounds; the furrow in both cases was 
nine inches. 

The power required in Mr. Pusey's experiments for each square 
inch of average sectional area of the furrow slice in the four 
shallowest furrows was 5.98 pounds; the four deepest furrows 
required 6.33 pounds. 

In Mr. Morton's, each square inch of sectional area in the 
shallowest furrows required 9.49 pounds, and for the deepest 
10.51 pounds. 

The experiments of Messrs. Pusey and Morton agree in making 
the power required to turn each square inch of the sectional area 
greater in deep than in shallow furrows, the excess, according to 
Mr. Pusey, being six per cent, and according to Mr. Morton it is 
ten per cent. According lo our experiments il is seventeen per 
cent less. Ours were made with different plows, while each of 
theirs was made with the same plow, which may partly account 
for the discrepancy. But the practical point is very clear, from 
all i\w experiments, thai the power required for deep plowing is 
not materially greater in proportion to the work done. A furrow 
twelve inches deep can be plowed with about twice as much power 

as a furrow six inches deep. The actual power consumed by 
each successive inch in depth was, according lo the average of 



Supplementary Plow Trials. 



277 



our experiments for all the plows, 64.05 pounds. According to 
Mr. Pusey's experiments the difference for each inch was 63.33 
pounds. According to Mr. Morton's, the difference was 86.Q6 
pounds. 

II. What is the increase of power required for each successive 
inch of width in plowing ? 

We answer this question by the following table, showing the 
result of experiments made for the purpose with Holbrook's Plow 
No. 65. The coulter was set with its point two inches above the 
sole of the plow. We began with the narrowest furrow, working 
gradually wider. All the furrows were intended to be seven 
inches deep, and all were so except the eighty-fourth, which was 
six inches deep: 





o 


03 


a 


t-, 


o 






ft 






PI 


M 


o 2 


H-= 




a 


& 


«4-H 


rQ—" 


^b 


O 
6 


T3 
S 


S3 

p 


*84 


8 


363 


*85 


8 


415 


*86 


8 


467 


*87 


9 


438 


*88 


9 


453 


89 


16 


525 


90 


16 


519 


91 


15 


509 


92 


15 


504 


f93 


14 


513 


94 


14 


485 


95 


13 


453 


96 


13 


455 


97 


12 


451 


98 


12 


458 


99 


10 


454 


100 


10 


459 


101 


8 


421 


102 


8 


389 



REMARKS 



Average of eighty-fifth and eighty-sixth experiments, 441 

pounds. 
Average of eighty-seventh and eigthy-eighth experiments, 

443 pounds. 
Average of eighty-ninth and ninetieth experiments, 522 

pounds. 
Average of ninety-first and ninety-second experiments, 

496 pounds. 
Average of ninety-third and ninety-fourth experiments, 

499 pounds. 
Average of ninety-fifth and ninety-sixth experiments, 454 

pounds. 
Average of ninety-seventh and ninety-eighth experiments, 

454 pounds. 
Average of ninety-ninth and one hundredth experiments, 

456 pounds. 
Average of one hundred and first and one hundred and 

second experiment, 405 pounds. 



* These experiments made it evident that the plow was working unnaturally. Each 
successive furrow was wider than the next succeeding one ; the sole of the plow was 
therefore wedged hy the shoulder thus formed, and required more power than it would 
if the channel on the right hand had been free. We, therefore, concluded to begin 
with the widest furrow and work down to the narrowest. The coulter was set flush 
with the land side. 

f Stones in the bottom of the furrow. 

J At this point we set the point of the coulter one-quarter of an inch in from the 
land side. 



278 



Report of the Special Committee. 



The average width of the furrows from the eighty-ninth to one 
hundred and second experiment was 12.57 inches; the average 
draught was 469 pounds; the average increase of draught for each 
inch is 19 \ pounds. 

Recapitulation. 



Width of fur- 
row, inches. 


Draught in 
pounds. 


Difference, 
pounds. 


Size of prism, 
square inches. 


Draught of each square 
inch of sectional area, 
in pounds. 


16 


522 




112 


4.64 


15 


496 


26 


105 


4.72 


14 


499 


3 + 


98 


5.09 


13 


454 


45 


91 


4.99 


12 


454 


. , 


84 


5.40 


10 


456 


2 + 


70 


6.51 


8 


405 


51 


56 


7.30 



It will be observed that the draught required for each square 
inch of sectional area increases as the size of the area diminishes. 
This accounts for the greater amount of draught of this plow, as 
shown in the table on pages 268, 269. 

III. What is the increase of power required when the furrow 
slice remains of the same size for each successive increment of 
velocity ? 

We endeavored to answer this question by the following experi- 
ments made with Holbrook's Plow No. 65, cutting a furrow seven 
inches deep and fourteen inches wide: 



No. of ex- 
periment. 


Seconds. 


Yards. 


Pounds. 


AVERAGE. 


Seconds. 


Yards. 


Pounds. 


103.... 
104.... 
105 .... 
L06.... 
107.... 
108.... 


96 
125 
57 
58 
25 
26 


76 
76 
75 
73 
68 
68 


450 
519 
480 
520 
685 
676 


110 

57 h 

25J 


76 
74 

68 


484 h 
500 

680* 



In order to facilitate a comparison of our experiments with 
those of Mr. Pusey, which are given in the report on plows, we 
give the following table, in which the preceding experiments are 
repeated in another form: 



Supplementary Plow Trials. 



279 



Rate of going per 
hour. 


Time required to plow 
an acre. 


Draught of plow. 


l T thr miles. 

67 (« 

f; 45 " 
°T0U- 


4 hours, 25 minutes. 
2 " 39 
1 " 18 


484|- pounds. 

500 

680 



It appears from the foregoing that, when the speed on the 
second trial was very nearly doubled, the draught was only 
increased 15 i pounds, which was probably due to inequalities in 
the soil; and when, in the third trial, the speed was again more than 
doubled, the draught was only increased 180 pounds. It may be 
considered as fully settled that velocity has very little influence 
on draught. The last experiment does, indeed, show that the 
draught was somewhat increased, and this was also the case in the 
experiments of Messrs. Morton and Pusey; but the cause of this 
increase was very apparent in our trials; and we have no doubt 
that it was also the case in theirs. When the speed rose to 
five and one-half miles an hour (nearly), the soil was thrown 
upwards thirty inches high, and laterally four feet, so that four 
of the preceding furrows were covered with pulverized earth. It 
was this upward and lateral throw of the earth which consumed 
the 180 pounds of power. So long as the speed is not increased 
to the point where the earth is thrown upward and laterally, we 
think it is demonstrated beyond all possibility of doubt that the 
power required in plowing is not increased by an increase of 
speed. 

IV. What proportion of the total amount of power consumed 
in plowing is absorbed by the different parts of the plow, viz., 
the sole, the land side, the share, the mould board ? 

.Experiment JSTo. 38. — The surface draught of No. 65 (weight, 
130 pounds) was 78 pounds. 

Experiment JSfo. 15. — The surface draught of No. 69 (weight, 
140 pounds) was 118 pounds. 

The greater surface draught of the latter was probably owing 
to the greater breadth of the sole, measured from the land side 
to the angle of the feather. 

The average draught of No. 65, plowing seven inches deep, as 
shown in experiments Nos. 49, 50 and 51, was 512 pounds. 



•280 



Report of the Special Committee. 



The mould-board was removed from No. 65, and the plow was 
made to run seven inches deep, with the following results: 



No. of ex- 
periments. 


Draught, 
pounds. 


REMARKS 


109 

110 


478 
485 


} Average of one hundred and ninth and one hundred 
3 tenth experiments, 482 pounds. 



The consumption of power by the mould-board would thus 
appear to be 482 — 512 = 30 pounds, or 5.8 per cent, of the whole 
amount; the consumption by the sole, 14.5 per cent of the whole 
amount. 

In Mr. Morton's experiments, 10 per cent of the whole power 
was consumed in turning the furrow, which is very small, but 4.2 
per cent less than our experiments would indicate. In Mr. Pusey's 
experiments, 50 per cent of the power was consumed in what he 
calls surface draught; but it must be observed that this was 
obtained by running the plow through an empty furrow, and 
embraces the friction of the land side as well as of the sole, whereas 
ours was obtained by simply allowing the plow to run over the 
toj) of the ground, and we therefore obtained the friction of the 
sole without being complicated by the land side. 

The plows which we used were so constructed that the land 
side could not be detached from the share, and we were, there- 
fore, unable to determine the power required by the land side 
and the share separately. 

The power required to draw the plow through a furrow seven 
inches deep was, as we have seen, 512 pounds. Power absorbed 
by the sole, 77 pounds; power absorbed by the mould-board, 30 
pounds. Now,- if we assume with Mr. Pusey, that the sole and 
hind side together consume 50 per cent of the whole power, then 
. r >() — 1.45 = 35.5 per cent, which is absorbed by the land side; 
therefore, the power consumed by the land side is 179 pounds, 
leaving for the power required for share and coulter 226 pounds. 

V. What is the influence of (he coulter on draught? 

Mr. Stephens has staled the result of a very remarkable experi- 
ment tried by him to ascertain the influence of the coulter upon 
the draught He adjusted a plow with a coulter which projected 
seven inches below the sole of the plow, and having adjusted the 
hook ol* the whillle-lrets in the bridle, SO that the sole would 



Supplementary Plow Trials. 281 

swim freely on the surface without any tendency to dip into the 
ground, he proceeded to measure the surface draught and the 
cuttino- action of the coulter seven inches beneath the surface of 
the ground. The draught in this case was 364 pounds. The 
draught when the coulter was removed and the plow was drawn 
over the surface of the ground was 112 pounds, which, being 
deducted from the whole draught, leaves 252 pounds as the 
draught of the coulter. Mr. Stephens further states, that a well 
trimmed plow, turning a furrow seven inches deep and ten inches 
broad, was at work in the same field, the draught of which was 
only 364 pounds. The same plow, after the coulter was removed, 
was put to plow a furrow seven inches by ten inches, and its 
draught was also 364 pounds. It would, therefore, appear from 
this experiment that the surface draught, and the coulter running 
seven inches into the ground, required as much power as it does to 
turn a complete furrow seven inches by ten inches. 

Experiment JSFo. 111. — We desired to verify this experiment, 
and we accordingly affixed a coulter which had been specially 
prepared for the purpose to No. 65, so that it projected six inches 
below the sole. The bridle of the plow was not long enough to 
enable us to bring it into proper trim, so as to prevent it from 
running into the ground, but finally, by attaching a chain to the 
guides of the wheel it worked very satisfactorily. The draught 
(including the surface draught) was 296 pounds; deducting the 
surface draught, which is 77 pounds, we have 219 pounds for the 
power consumed by the coulter, which is 33 pounds less than Mr. 
Stephens found; but as his coulter ran one inch deeper than ours, 
and would therefore necessarily consume more power, the agree- 
ment is quite as close as could be expected. 

Experiment JSFo. 112. — We then removed the coulter, and 
plowed a furrow six inches deep and eleven inches wide. The 
draft was now 417 pounds, or 121 pounds more than was required 
for the surface draught of the plow, and to cut six inches into the 
ground. 

In order to complete this experiment on the influence of the 
coulter, we should have plowed a few furrows of the same size, 
with the coulter adjusted in the ordinary way; but the importance 
of the experiment escaped our attention at the moment. 

Experiment JSFo. 113. — We thought of it afterwards, and tried 
the experiment, but we were at that time plowing in a denser soil, 
and the comparison was, therefore, not exact. The draught in the 



282 Report of the Special Committee. 

soil where we tried it was 443 pounds, or 26 pounds more than it 
was without a coulter. We record the experiment exactly as it 
was made, leaving each one to draw his own conclusions; but, in our 
judgment, although the use of a coulter in sod ground makes much 
better work, it does not have much effect on the draught in any way. 
This opinion must, however, be modified with respect to the 
swivel plows, which evidently worked much more easily with a 
coulter, as appears by comparing the results of experiments Nos. 

9, 10 and 11: ' , 

' Pounds. 

Experiments Nos. 9 and 10 469 

Experiment No. 11 582 

Difference in favor of coulter 113 

It does not appear from our experiments that the depth of the 
coulter in the soil, so long as it does not run below the sole of the 
plow, affects the draught. (See experiments Nos. 12, 13 and 14.) 
But, if the coulter is used, our experiments show very decidedly 
that much depends upon its being in a proper condition. On 
comparing the average of the fifty-sixth, fifty-seventh and fifty- 
eighth experiments (545 pounds) with the average of the sixtieth 
and sixty-first (512 pounds), it will be seen that 33 pounds were 
saved by the use of a sharp coulter. 

It was not found that the rake of the coulter made any material 
difference when plowing among fibrous roots, but it became neces- 
sary to give it more rake when plowing among rhizomes, such as 
quack roots. This fact was well exemplified in experiments sixty 
and sixty-one (512 pounds). The rake was then increased very 
considerably in experiments sixty-two to sixty-five (452 pounds), 
showing a reduction in power of 59 pounds. On examining the 
eds;e of the cutter it was found that there was a rough wire edge 
on it, and it was then rubbed down smooth with a scythe-stone, 
and the draught fell, in the sixty-sixth and sixty-seventh experi- 
ments, to 422 pounds. It was then found that the coulter had 
-lipped and lost most of the rake that had been given to it during 
the last two experiments. It was again adjusted properly, and 
from the sixty-eighth to the seventy-first experiment the draught 
was 389 pounds. These experiments show a reduction in draught 
of 150 pounds by putting the coulter in proper order. 

VI. Does the skim plow consume more or less power than the 
coulter? 



Supplementary Plow Trials. 283 

Experiment No. 114 — No. 69 was furnished with a coulter and 
a stubble mould-board, the furrow being nine inches deep and 
twelve inches wide. The draught of the plow, thus adjusted, was 
729 pounds. 

Experiment No. 115. — The coulter was then withdrawn from 
the plow, and a skim plow was placed on the beam and set to 
work with a furrow of the same size; draught, 659 pounds, show- 
ing a difference of 70 pounds in favor of the skim plow. These 
experiments are believed to give a sufficient answer to the question. 

VII. What is the elasticity of different soils ? 

We did not try this experiment as fully as it deserves, as we 
found it would require more time and expense to do so than we 
could well afford; but we performed it carefully in different parts 
of the same field, which differed considerably in consistency. 

Experiment No. 116. — Referring to the report of the judges of 
the Utica trial for the method of making it, we have to state that, 
with a furrow eleven inches deep and sixteen inches broad, the 
upper part of the slice in the most tenacious part of the field 
would stretch seven and a half inches beyond the lower portion 
before breaking; in the least tenacious part it would stretch four 
and three-quarter inches; and soils of intermediate tenacity would 
stretch in proportion. 

Experiment No. 117. — The stretch diminished according to the 
shallowness of the furrow slice. At four inches deep it would 
not stretch much more than an inch in the toughest part of the 
field, and in the loosest part it would not much exceed half an 
inch. At six inches deep it stretched two and a half inches, and 
at eight inches deep, a little over three inches. 

This great difference in the elasticity of soils shows how impos- 
sible it is to make any one plow which shall work equally well in 
al] soils. If it has a sufficient twist to break the least tenacious 
soils, it will utterly fail to disintegrate those which are more 
tenacious. If, on the other hand, it has enough sharpness of twist 
to disintegrate the most tenacious soils, it will cause a great waste 
of power when used in less tenacious soils. All that can bo 
reasonably asked of a plowmaker is that, a soil and depth of 
furrow being given, he shall make a plow which will disintegrate 
it most thoroughly with the least expenditure of power. It by 
no means follows that it will be the best plow in any other 
soil? 



284 Report of the Special Committee. 

VIII. What is the influence of the wheel on draught ? 

We are ashamed to be obliged to state that we quite overlooked 
this part of our programme, and are therefore unable to give an 
experimental answer to this question. 

IX. What is the influence of the plowman on draught ? 

We have already answered this question incidentally in the 
earlier portions of this report. In some cases, where he was 
obliged to exert his force through a lever to counteract a tendency 
to irregularity, in consequence of a maladjustment of the parts, 
the extra power required rose up to 115 pounds. In all cases the 
lightest draught was shown where the plow ran with the least 
interference on the part of the plowman. 

We cannot close our report of these trials without the expres- 
sion of our sincere thanks to Gov. Holbrook and Mr. Joel Nourse 
for the very valuable assistance which they rendered to us, without 
which our labors would have been much less fruitful. 

JOHN STANTON GOULD, 
HENRY WATERMAN, 

Committee. 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Alden & Co., cultivator 254 

Alger, Cyrus, annealing cast iron 

plows, 1839 117 

American, early plow 65 

Berkshire plow, preferred by Tull. . . 17 

Brand's (Suffolk) plow 22 

Burch, L. D., Swivel plow 249 

Burden, Henry, plow 90 

Bur rail, T. D., patent for diminishing 

friction of land side, 1843 117 

Carbonic acid a solvent 143 

Carpenter, Levi 101 

Caschrom (British plow) 9 

Centre draught (Mears' invention). . 100 

(Prouty & Mears) 165 

Chapman & Barnum, device for 
diminishing friction of land side. . 127 

Chenoweth, R. B., patent 71 

Chinese plow 13 

Conkling, James H 151 

Coulter, devices for clearing 200 

draught of 182 

elevation and set of 183 

Mr. Stephens' experiments on 

draught of 182 

varieties of form and attach- 
ment 180 

Cultivators, Alden &Co.. 254 

Ford & Howe's 259 

Hawks' 256 

McQueston's 261 

Phifer's 256 

Rules for trial 208 

Davis, Gideon, patent and construc- 
tion 72 

Deep plowing, effect of 146 

Denver, John, patented a plow 1803. 69 

Ditching machine 243 

for under-draining 245 

Draught of plows (see " Plows, 

draught of") 154 

Draught of plows, planes of resistance 167 

point of resistance 168 

angle of 169 

experiments on 177 

difference of plowmen 179 

1820 89 

Dutcher, J., letter on the " History 
of the Plow " 94 



PAGE. 

Dynamometer at trial of plows, 1820. 89 

East Indian plow 10 

East Lothian plow 35 

Egyptian plow, ancient 8 

now in use 12 

Elasticity of furrow slice 153 

English plow, A. D. 1470 13 

Fast-walking draught beasts, value of 165 

Fertility, causes of 136 

Fords & Howe, cultivator 259 

Four-coultered plow 18 

Four coulters, use of 18 

French (Canadian) plow 16 

Grant's Iona plow 129 

Handley, Mr., experiments between 

Swivel plows and wheel plows .... 177 

Harris, Hezekiah, patent 1804 69 

1808 71 

Harris, Zadock,pat. and specification 82 

Harrows, rules for trial 207 

J.E.Morgan's 251 

F . Nishwitz's 253 

Hawks', N., Ditching plow 243 

cultivator 256 

Heath, E., Ditching machine 245 

Hingham's Self-holding plow 91 

Hitchcock, David, plow, 1823 91 

Holbrook, F. F., method 129 

Horton, Frost 101 

Iona plow, Grant's 129 

Jacobs, James, patent 1834 107 

Jefferson, Mr ,constructionof his plow 23 

objections to the same 32 

suggestions of cast iron for 

mould-boards 33 

suggestion of two wedges .... 22 

Klay, John, patent 72 

Kilmer, J. & A., invention 200 

Knox, James A., patent 1852 117 

Lanarkshire plow 50 

McCormick's plow 99 

McQueston's cultivator 251 

Mead's patent, 1863 127 

Mears, John 100 

Mexican plow 12 

Mid-Lothian plow 51 

Minor & Horton.. 101 

Minor, Truman 101 

Modern English plows 59 



286 



Index. 



PAGE. 

Morgan &. Harris' patent , . 72 

Morgan, J. E., harrow 251 

Morton, J. C, experiments in draught 

of plows 157, 161. 164 

Mould-board. F. F. Holbrook's .' 128 

G. Davis' 72 

Mr. Jefferson's 23,32, 33 

Rham's 62 

should he adapted to the soil. 150 

Stephens' construction 51 

twist of, splits the furrow slice 151 
Newbold, Chas., first cast-iron plow 

in America 66 

New York State Agricultural Society, 

trial draught plows, 1850 158 

Nishwitz, F., harrow 253 

Nourse, Joel 91 

Eagle plow 93 

Patrick, M., patent 72 

Peacock. David, patent 1807 69 

1817 72 

Pease. Horace, patent 72 

Peekskill plow 101 

Phifer's cultivator 256 

Pickering, T., letter on lines of the 

plow, 1820 69 

Plants, growth and food of 136 

Piatt, H. M., Screw-Auger plow, '58. 127 

Plow of Asia Minor 8 

Berkshire 17 

Brands' 22 

British 9 

Burch's 249 

Burden, Henry 90 

Chinese 13 

Collins & Co., B 14 213 

Collins & Co., C 3 234 

East Indian 10 

East Lothian 35 

Egyptian, ancient 8 

now in use 12 

English, A. D. 1470 13 

Four-coultered 18 

French (Canadian) 16 

Grant's Iona 129 

Hawks' Ditching 243 

Hingham's Self-holding 91 

Hitchcock, 1 , David s 91 

Holbrook's No. 65 210 

No. 66 213 

No. 69 224 

No. 6 Swivel 248 

Mr. Jefferson's 23 

Lanarkshire 50 

McCormick's 99 

Mexican 12 

Mid-Lothian 51 

Modern English 59 

Ncwbold's, Charles 66 

Nourse's, Joel, Eagle 93 

Peekskill 101 

Prout's Ditching 243 

Piatt. II. M., Screw-Auger ... 1-7 

Roman '•' 

Rotherhain 16 

Saxon, eleventh century 14 



Plow, Side-hill 248 

Small, James 35 

Steel, for alluvial land. .'. 246 

Sod and Subsoil 239 

"Webster, Daniel 103 

Wilkie's 50 

Wood, Jethro| 72 

improved 1819 84 

Plows, draught of 154 

comparison, different soils. . . . 157 

J. C. Morton's experiments .. 157 

161, 164 

Philip Pusey's experiments. . . 155 

161, 163, 177 

ratio to depth 160 

ratio to velocity 163 

trialsof, by N.Y.S.A.S., 1850'. 158 
(See" Supplementary Trials.") 

list of entries 209 

rules for trials 205 

Sod, for stiff soils 210 

Stubble, for stiff soils 211 

Plowing, adjustment for turning under 

• weeds, etc.! 198 

attachment of the team 193 

crested furrow 89 

flat furrow 191 

lap furrows, use of 185 

proportion of depth to 

width 187 

left hand 201 

Plowing, objects of, enumerated . 148 

sod and subsoil 190 

stubble 192 

without dead furrows 191 

Programme of trials 204 

Prouty, David 100 

Pulverization 149 

Pusey, Philip, experiments on draught 

of plows 155, 161, 163, 177 

Ransome, Robert, improvement 60 

case-hardened or chilled shares 60 

Rham, Rev. W. L., lines for plow. . . 62 

Roberts', M. L., invention 127 

Roman plow 9 

Roots of plants, extent of 144 

Rotherham plow 16 

Routt's, A. P., Ditching plow 243 

Rules of trials 204 

Saxon plow, eleventh century 14 

Seltz, John, patent 72 

Small's, James, plows 35 

Smith, Aaron, patent 1844 Ill 

Col. John, cast share 68 

Soil, absorbing power 189 

mechanical condition 139 

deepening of 218 

Soils. Voelcker's experiments 189 

Way's experiments 139 

Stephens'. Mr., construction of monld- 
hoard 51 

experiments on draught of 

coulter 182 

Stevens, Edwin A., improvement. . . 89 

Stnbble, to turn under 198 

Subsoil, attachment to plow 211 



Index. 



287 



PAGE. 

Supplementary trials 263 

points of . . 263 

draught experiments to de- 
termine increase of power 
for each inch of depth . 265-271 

remarks on same 272-276 

trials to determine increase 
of power for each inch of 

width 277 

to determine increase of power 

for increase of velocity. 278, 279 
to determine the proportion of 
power absorbed by differ- 
ent parts of the plow. 279, 280 
to determine the influence 
of the coulter upon the 

draught 280-282 

to determine relative draughts 

of Skim plow and coulter. 282 
to determine the elasticity of 
different soils 283 



PAGE. 

Swan, John, patent 72 

Swing plow, advantages of 175 

Tousley, Eobert, patent 72 

Tull, Jethro, experiment on range of 

roots of plants 145 

Vcelcker's experiments 139 

Way's deductions as to separating 

power of soils 141 

Webster, Daniel, his plow 103 

Weeds and stubble, to bury 198 

Wheatley, R. J., subsoil attachment. 241 

Wheel of the plow 173 

mode of attaching 179 

Whiffle-trees, observations on 194 

for three horses 195 

Wiley, James 101 

Wilkie's plow 50 

Witherow & Pierce, patent 1839 114 

Wood, Jethro, patent 72 

improved plow, 1819 84 



LIST OF FIGUEES. 



Fig. page. 

1. Plow of Asia Minor 8 

2. Ancient Egyptian plow 8 

3. Roman plow 9 

4. 5. Form of plow as used by 

Cincinnatus and Cato 9 

6. Caschrom (British plow) 10 

7. East Indian plow 11 

8. Egyptian plow now in use 12 

9. Mexican plow 13 

10. Chinese plow 13 

11. English plow, A. D. 1470 14 

12. Saxon plow of eleventh century 14 

13. French (Canadian) plow 15 

14. Land side of Rotherham plow. 17 

15. Furrow side same 16 

16. Bridle, &c, same 17 

17. Brand's (Suffolk) plow 22 

18 to 27. Diagrams illustrating Mr. 

Jefferson's formation of mould- 
board 24 to 31 

East Lothian plow 35 

Body frame of the same 39 

Sole bar of the same inverted. 39 

Vertical section same 40 

32 to 37. Share of the same 41 

38. Form of sock plate same 42 

39, 40, 41. Sole shoe same 43 

42. Edge view of the coulter, same 43 

43. Side view of the coulter, same 43 

Plan of bridle of same 44 

Side view same 44 

Elevation of the body in work- 
ing position, same 45 

Horizontal sole shoe, same. ... 45 
Diagram of the formation of the 

mould-board 46 

49. Diagram do do do 49 

50. Plow staff 51 

51. Hammer nut key 51 



28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 



44. 
45. 
46. 

47. 

48. 



Fig. page. 

52. Diagram illustrating formation 

block for mould -board 57 

53 a. Shares, showing chilled parts 61 
53 b. do do 61 

54. Mortised shoe 61 

55. Cast plow frames 61 

56. Mould-board and share show- 
ing attachment to the frame . . 82 

57 to 60. Diagram showing Rham's 

formation of mould-board. . 63, 64 

61. Newbold's plow 67 

62. Chenoweth's plow 71 

63. Harris' plow, 1819 82 

64. Wood's plow 85 

65. Burden's plow 90 

66. Nourse's Eagle No. 2 94 

A. B. Dutchers' diagrams of forma- 
tion of mould-board 98 

Daniel Webster's plow, land side. . . 104 
Daniel Webster's plow, furrow side. 104 
Daniel Webster's plow, dimensions . 105 

67. Jacobs' plow 108 

68. Diagram of Smith's Michigan 
plow Ill 

69. Diagram of the right hand or 
face view of Smith's mould- 
board 112 

69 a to 69/. Parts of the same . . . 113 
[Figs. 9, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, referred 
to on page 114, are not reproduced 
in this report, but all that is neces- 
sary for the description is con- 
tained in figs. 69 a to 69 b, p. 113.] 

70. Diagram of Witherow & Pierce's 

mould-board 115 

71 . Diagram of generating curve. . 115 

72. Elevation of Gibbs' plow 126 

73. Mead's share and mould-board 128 
— fig. 1. Iona turning plow 129 



288 



Index. 



Fig. page - 

73. fig. 2. Inclined plane or share 

of same 130 

— fig. 3. Transformed No. 1, Iona 130 

— fig. 4. Great Trench No. 1 do 131 

— fig. 5. Great Trench No. 2 do 131 

— fig. 6. Trenching plow for loams 

and clay, do 132 

— fig. 7. Large trenching plow . . 132 

— fig. 1 to 8. Diagrams illustra- 

ting the operations of 
trenching plow . . 133, 134 
74 to 79. Diagrams illustrating frac- 
ture of furrow slice 150-152 

80. Section of Prouty &. Mears' 
plow, showing obliquity of land 
side 168 

81. Diagram of line of draught. .. . 170 

82. Diagram showing increase of 
resistance of wheel 174 

82 to 86. Forms of plow wheels. . . 180 
87 to 91. Coulters 181 

92. Fin share 182 

93. Position of coulter, Prouty & 
Mears' 184 

94. 95. Diagrams of lap furrows, 185, 186 
96, 97. Diagrams of rotation of fur- 
row slice 188 

98. Trapezoidal furrow 190 

99. Sod and subsoil furrow 191 

100. Flat furrow sod 191 

101. Stubble furrow 192 

102. Holbrook's sod and subsoil plow 193 

103. Whinletrees for three horses . . 195 

104. Method of attaching three horses 

in New York 196 



Fig. page. 

105. Stephens' method of attaching 
four horses to the plow 197 

106. Chain attachment for plowing 
under weeds, &c 199 

107. Kilmer's adjustment for do 199 

108. Device for cleaning the coulter 199 

109. Left hand plow 201 

— figs. 1, 2. 3, 4. Diagrams for 

plowing grounds with- 
out a dead furrow. 201, 202 

110. Holbrook's No. 66 for stubble 
lands in stiff soils 211 

111. Holbrook's No. 66 214 

112,113. Collinsville plow 214 

Holbrook's No. 66 sod plow 217 

114. Holbrook's No. 69 stubble plow 222 

115. Front and rear standard of same 231 

116. Parts of the same 232 

117. Holbrook's No. 69 sod and sub- 
soil 239 

118. Holbrook's No. 69 sod 241 

119. Hawks' ditching plow 243 

120. do do as cultivator 245 

121. Heath's ditching machine 247 

122. Holbrook's swing or side-hill 
plow 248 

123. Diagram of Burch's share 249 

124. Morgan's harrow 252 

125. Alden's cultivator 255 

126. do do as corn-marker 255 

127. Phifer's two-horse cultivator. . 257 

128. Fords &. Howe, cultivator 260 

129. McQueston's improved culti- 
vator 262 



PLATES. 

» PAGE. 

PLATE I.— Fig. 1. Berkshire plow 18 

" Fig. 2. Four-coultered plow, with parts of same 19 

PLATE II.— East Lothian or Small's plow 36 

PLATE III. — Analytical section of mould-boards: — East Lothian plow; Mid- 
Lothian plow; Berwickshire plow; Lanarkshire plow 46 

PLATE IV. — Analytical sections of mould-boards: — "Western Fifeshire plow ; 

Ransom's F F new mould-board 53 

PLATE V. — Howard's and Ransome's plows 63 

PLATE VI.— Davis' plows 72 

PLATE VII.— McCormick's plow 99 

PLATE VIII — Knox's forming mould-boards of plows 118 



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